Term
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Definition
| What is the study of biological function? |
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Term
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Definition
| What is the maintenance of a stable internal environment? |
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Term
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Definition
What is this, "Organism↔Organ System↔Organ↔Tissue↔Cell↔
Organelle↔Molecule↔Atom↔
Elementary Particle," called? |
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Term
| The Law of Maximum and Minimum |
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Definition
| What is the scale where a homeostatic factor is measured on a scale by functional efficiency (ie min, max, stress, death, normal, optimal)? |
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Term
| What is the Basic Feedback Mechanism Describe what each step means. |
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Definition
Stimulus→Receptor→Modulator→Effector→Response
↑ ↓
← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ← ←
Stimulus- A factor that is regulated by homeostasis
Receptor- A tissue or cell
Modulator- Control center
Effector- A musscle or gland
Response- The reaction to the stimulus (release of a hormone or action potential.
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Term
| What is a Negative Feedback System? |
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Definition
| A feedback mechanism in which the response feeds back into the stimulus canceling or counteracting the pathway. It is seen commonly in the body |
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Term
| What is a Positive Feedback System? |
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Definition
| A feedback mechanism in which the response amplifies the stimulus. |
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Term
| What are some examples of a negative feedback system? |
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Definition
| fluid pH, ion balance, body temperature, etc. |
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Term
| Which is more common in the human body... the positive feedback mechanism or the negative feedback mechanism? |
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Definition
| the negative feedback mechanism |
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Term
| What are some examples of a positive feedback mechanism? |
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Definition
| contractions during childbirth |
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Term
| What are the ways in which homeostatic control is executed? |
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Definition
- Extrinsic- controls come from the outside of the organ by either the nervous system (fast acting/fast to wear off) or the endocrine system (slow acting/slow to wear off)
- Intrinsic- controls (chemicals) are made within the organ that is being regulated
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Term
| What is a physiological rhythem? |
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Definition
| A biological time clock that is regulated by homeostasis. Stimuli from the environment trigger certain aspects of these clocks and the most important in these processes is the hypothalamus. |
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Term
| Give some examples of physiological rhythms. |
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Definition
| sleep, blood pressure, body temperature, food consumption |
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Term
| Define Desynchronosis. What are some causes and effects? |
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Definition
| One or some of the body's physiological rhythms get out of sync. Causes can be jet lag, radical sleep schedules, rotations of work shifts. The effects are foggy head, decreased visual activity, decreased cognitive function. |
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Term
| Describe the basic structure of the cell membrane. |
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Definition
| It is a "lipid bilayer" that contains roughly 50% lipid and 50% protein. The lipid is made up of phospholipid and the protein can consist of either integral (70%) or peripheral (30%) proteins. |
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Term
| What are the functions of the cell membrane? |
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Definition
| It functions to separate the outside of the cell from the cytoplasm, control what gets in and what leaves, and perform a variety of communications between other cells (or to respond to hormones through a homeostatic pathway). |
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Term
| What can enter and exit the plama membrane (without using a protein for assistance)? |
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Definition
| The plasma membrane is semipermiable which means that only certain molecules are allowed to enter and exit. Molecules that are small, non-polar & hydrophobic, and water can pass freely through based upon their concentration gradients. Molecules that are large, polar & hydrophilic (water exculded), and ions have to find other means of entering and exiting the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Made of at least two molecules, these have a binding site that when activated triggers a "conformational change" that allow substances to enter or exit the cell. It is spesific to what can fit through the entrance=SPECIFICITY. Sometimes a close fit will make it through which means you have two molecules competing for the same site=COMPETITION. |
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Term
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Definition
| A gated, water filled pore that when opened by a chemical or charge (electrical) will allow the passage of small ions, or small polar molecules. Chemical regulated channel proteins have a binding site. The amount of binding time depends on a number of factors including the chemical, the temperature, etc. |
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Term
| Carrier Mediated Transport |
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Definition
| A passive transport process that allows larger molecules to pass through the cell membrane. |
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Term
| What are some concepts to consider in terms of the random movement of molecules? |
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Definition
- Molecules are in a constant state of motion
- Molecules are constantly striving toward equilibrium
- The speed of the molecules depends on the temperature.
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Term
| What is Simple Diffusion? |
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Definition
| A process in which a molecule moves from an area of high to low concentration. An example would be the diffusion of hydrophobic molecules directly through the plasma membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
| A passive process when a solvent (usually water) diffuses from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. |
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Term
| Name the five types of vesicular transport. Is this an active or passive process? |
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Definition
| Phagocytosis, endocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis, and exocytosis. These are active processes. |
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Term
| What is osmotic pressure? |
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Definition
| The solvent pressure measured on one side of a membrane when there are varying amounts of solute on each side. |
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Term
| What kind of solution is the result of crenation? |
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Definition
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Term
| What kind of solution causes a cell to swell and possibly explode? |
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Definition
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Term
| A cell is in a plasma like solution and at equilibrium. What kind of solution would you call this? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Facilitated Diffusion? |
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Definition
| A passive process in which a carrier protein is used to move a solute from high to low concentration into or out of a cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| A passive process in which hydrostatic pressure pushes particles through a filterfrom an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. (i.e. the glomerulus in the kidneys) |
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Term
| Give an example of Primary Active Transport. |
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Definition
| Primary Active Transport is when a carrier is used to move solute against its concentration gradient into or out of a cell, requiring ENERGY. An example would be the, "sodium/potassium pump." |
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Term
| What is the difference between chromatin and a chromosome? |
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Definition
| Chromatin is the diffuse, unwound DNA including the regulatory proteins while Chromasomes are condensed and tightly wound. Chromasomes can be viewed with a light microscope while chromatin can not. |
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Term
| What is Secondary Active Transport? Give two examples. Also, why do these go under the active transport category when these items are going with their concentration gradients? |
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Definition
| Secondary active transport is a process in which a sodium ion binds to a carrier protein to open a channel so that a larger molecule may enter or exit the cell. The two examples are Symport and Antiport. The reason that it is an acive process is that the sodium ion must be actively pumped out later. |
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Term
| Why do cells duplicate their DNA? Why do cells make RNA? |
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Definition
| DNA is made during the process of either mitosis or meiosis while RNA is made to code for a protien made in the cytoplasm (the DNA can't leave the nucleus). |
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Term
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Definition
| A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for the order of a spesific polypeptide. RNA must be made before that spesific polypeptide can be put together. |
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Term
| DNA and RNA are what? What repeating units make up their structure and what are these made of? |
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Definition
| DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids. They are polymers made up of repeating nuleotide units. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate, and one of five base groups depending on whether the molecule is DNA or RNA. |
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Term
| Name the base groups of DNA. Which do these pair with? |
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Definition
Adinine=Thymine
Guanine=Cytosine
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Term
| Name the base groups of RNA. What do these pair with when transcribing the DNA? |
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Definition
Adinine=Uracil
Guanine=Cytosine |
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Term
| Adinine and Guanine are called? |
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Definition
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Term
| Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil are called? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the basic structure of DNA. |
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Definition
| DNA is a double helix that is antiparallel with complimentary base pairs. The rungs consist of a deoxyribose, phosphate, deoxyribose, phosphate... and the sequence of base pairs code for genes. |
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Term
| Why is replication considered "semiconservative"? |
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Definition
| One of the strands comes from the old set and one is newly made from new nucleic acids. |
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Term
| Describe the process of DNA replication/synthesis. |
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Definition
- DNA Helicase and DNA Polymerase unwind and unzip the DNA.
- DNA Primase produces an RNA primer for DNA polymerase to start replication.
- Deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates align with complimentary base pairs to form hydrogen bonds (steps of the ladder).
- DNA Polymerase makes covalent bonds between each sugar and phosphate (rungs of the ladder).
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Term
Describe the basic structures of all three RNA molecules.
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Definition
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mRNA is a single helix shape that has a ribose/phosphate backbone and contains nucleotide base pairs.
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tRNA is a molecule that contains an amino acid binding site and an anticodon.
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rRNA is a molecule that can either be 40s or 60s (large or small) portion of a ribosome. When these two structures come together with mRNA, translation occurs.
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Term
| How does the genetic code work? What is some basic information that an physiology student should know about it? |
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Definition
| DNA is based upon triplet bases. Each triplet codes for a specific amino acid. Sometimes multiple triplets code for the same amino acid. There are 64 combinations that code for specific amino acids and 3 that mean "stop." The start codes for methionine and it is usually spliced off post-translation. |
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Term
| What is the process in which tRNA is synthesized? |
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Definition
| A RNA structure transcribed by RNA polymerase III (this enzyme is taken to the promoter site on DNA and ends at the termination site), spliced into spesific pieces in post-transcriptional modification and put back together to form a tRNA molecule. This then goes into the cytoplasm to start its job. |
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Term
| What is the process in which mRNA is made? |
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Definition
| RNA polymerase II is taken to the promoter site on DNA and transcribes a copy until it reaches the termination site. The DNA snaps back together and the mRNA goes through post-transcriptional modification. Once the remaining pieces are put back together in the proper order, it travels to the cytoplasm where it can be translated. |
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Term
| What is the process in which rRNA is made? |
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Definition
| There are two forms of rRNA. There are small and large ribosomal subuinits. It starts when RNA polymerase I goes to the promoter site on DNA and transcribes to the termination site. The DNA snaps back together and the rRNA goes through post-transcriptional modification. These pieces then are made into small and large ribosomal subunits that can now travel to the cytoplasm. |
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Term
| Describe the steps involved in translation. |
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Definition
- Initiation- mRNA has undergone post-transcriptional modification and now moves to the cytoplasm. tRNA gets charged with an amino acid spesific to that tRNA by ATP and synthase enzyme. The tRNA binds rRNA (40s) with met (UAC anticodon). The 40s combination, mRNA and 60s rRNA subuints combine to form a single structure.
- Elongation-Enzymes peptidyl transferase makes the peptide bonds and elongation factors release tRNA so that it can leave the ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA matching each codon with the properly charged tRNA anticodon to form a polypeptide. tRNA enters the A site charged and exits the P site without an amino acid
- Termination-mRNA termination codon is reached. mRNA will detach unless a polysome forms and it would then move onto the next ribosome. Enzymes will then "trim" the polypeptide in spesific places. Even without more modification, the polypeptide does have a shape unique because of the polarities and types of molecules involved.
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Term
| What are introns and exons? |
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Definition
| Introns are the spliced pieces of RNA after post-transcriptional modification that are not used in the final molecule while Exons are the spliced pieces that are actually used in the RNA molecule. |
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Term
| What are "Free Ribosomes"? |
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Definition
| They are subunits loose in the cell's cytoplasm that are not on the ER. Most protein synthesis occcurs on the Rough ER, but this shows that it can occur in other areas of the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| A line of ribosomes using the same mRNA to make multiple polypeptides at once. |
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Term
| What do we need to remember about Thermodynamics? |
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Definition
| Energy is never created or destroyed, it just changes form. Eventually all energy is converted to heat. |
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Term
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Definition
| It is basically the fact that everything moves from order to disorder. For example, a glass of water is very ordered. If you drop it on the floor it shatters into a million pieces and becomes disordered increasing the Entropy in the universe. |
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Term
| What is potential energy? |
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Definition
| Energy due to positon. (Rock at the top of a hill, water held back by a dam, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Energy due to motion. (chemical rxns, lightning, combustion rxns, etc.) |
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Term
| Name five types of chemical rxns (in a physiological sense). |
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Definition
| Endergonic, Exergonic, Decomposition, Synthesis, Reversible |
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Term
| What are enzymes? Describe what enzymes do from an energy perspective. |
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Definition
| Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catylists. They have a binding site, work quickly, and can be recycled. If they work with other enzymes they can form pathways. From an energy perspective they lower the activation energy of chemical reactions so that the rate of the reaction increases. |
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Term
| What kinds of factors can effect enzyme efficiency? |
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Definition
- Concentration- of both the number of enzymes or substrate
- pH and Temperature- enzymes work best in a spesifc range (see the law of max and min)
- Inhibitors- can block or change the shape (allosteric site) of an active site so that substrate can't be modified.
- Competition- Different subtrates can have a similar shape and compete for the same active site on an enzyme.
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Term
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Definition
| Non-protein, organic molecules that come from vitamins in one's diet. They help to catylize a variety of chemical rxns. Examples include NAD, FAD, And CoA. |
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Term
| What is Adenosine Triphosphate? |
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Definition
| Also called ATP, it is basically and adinie, ribose and three phosphate groups. The third phosphate's bond is highly unstable and the breaking of this bond yields high energy. In the cell it is used for membrane transport, mechanical work, and synthesis of new molecules. |
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Term
| Name some energy molecules other than ATP. |
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Definition
| GTP, ITP, UTP, CTP, Creatine Phosphate |
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Term
| How much energy does one ATP molecule have? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Cellular Metabolism? |
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Definition
| The energy sum of all chemical rxns in the body. |
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Term
| What is the differnce between anabolism and catabolism? |
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Definition
| Anabolism is a pathway involving the synthesis of new molecules using energy. Catabolism is a pathway involving the destruction of molecules and the breaking of these bonds gains energy. |
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Term
| What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic pathways? |
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Definition
| Anaerobic pathways do not use oxygen nor do they require ATP synthesis. Examples of anaerobic pathways include glycolysis, fermination, and substrate phosphorylation. Aerobic pathways require oxygen and synthesize ATP. Examples include the Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain. |
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