Term
|
Definition
| Prokaryotes carry out this simple form of splitting into two cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| A molecule of DNA together with protein that help to organize |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| This occurs with a cleavage furrow in animal cells and a cell plate in plant cells |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A molecule composed of a string of nucleotides(letters). Phosphates & Sugars serve as backbone. Hydrogen bonds between nucleotides |
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Term
|
Definition
| The unit of heredity that specifies a particular trait. Provides the cell with information for building a particular trait. A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes the sequence of amino acids in a particular protein. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two identical copies of the same chromosome, each coming from a different parent. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Proteins with positive charges around which the DNA molecule coils. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The spread of cancer throughout the body |
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Term
|
Definition
A cell cycle in which Eukaryotic cells divide consisting of
a) Mitosis- Nuclear division
b) Cytokinesis- cytoplasmic division
The end result is two daughter cells genetically identical to one another and to the parent cell |
|
|
Term
| What are the phases in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle? |
|
Definition
| Interphase, G1, G0, S, G2. Mitosis; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Cytokinesis |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the interphase? |
|
Definition
| Cell growth and replication of DNA |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the G1 phase? |
|
Definition
| Cell is sensitive to signals (will divide or not). Cells may also differentiate (become specialized). |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the S stage? |
|
Definition
| Synthesis of DNA, Chromosomes are replicated |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the G2 phase? |
|
Definition
| More cell growth, the organelles are replicated |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the G0 phase? |
|
Definition
| Resting Phase, No Cell division |
|
|
Term
| What are the four phases of Mitotic Cell Division? |
|
Definition
| Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the Prophase? |
|
Definition
| DNA condenses into chromosomes. The mitotic spindle is formed. The nuclear envelope begins to break down |
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|
Term
| What happens in the Metaphase? |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes align on a plane in the center of each cell. The kinotochore fibers connect to the center of each kinotochore from opposite sides of the centromeres |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the anaphase? |
|
Definition
| The centromeres replicate. The sister chromatids separate and move to different sides of the cell. |
|
|
Term
| What happens in the telophase? |
|
Definition
| The chromosomes decondense. The nuclear envelope reappears |
|
|
Term
| What happens in cytokinesis? |
|
Definition
| The cytoplasm divides. Two daughter cells are formed. Each are identical to each other and to the parent cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA replicates by "unzipping" the DNA and replacing the complementary nucleotides. After DNA has been copied the cell grows, resulting in elongation. The DNA molecules move towards each end of the cell and attaching to the membrane. The cell begins to split. New plasma membrane and cell wall are added to each of the DNA copies The plasma membrane pushes inward to divide the cell into two daughter cells. |
|
|
Term
| Describe a Prokaryotic Chromosome |
|
Definition
| Circular with double stranded DNA |
|
|
Term
| Describe a Eukaryotic Chromosome |
|
Definition
| Composed of DNA and protien. Chromosomes look as though they are a line with a ball in the center. The center is called a centromere. They are in pairs called homologues. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Protein 53 triggers the repair of damaged DNA, and triggers the destruction of DNA damaged beyond repair. If P53 than it fails to repair DNA or destroy damaged DNA. The cell than reproduces regardless of the state of the cell. |
|
|
Term
| What are the checkpoints in the cell cycle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in 1857, began to study the laws that govern the inheritance of traits and the existence of genes that carry traits from one generation to the next |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1928, tested mice and found that hereditary information in dead cells can transform living cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1944 came up with the transformative principle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A series of experiments that proved that the transforming substance was DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1947, The amount of c=g and a=t in DNA |
|
|
Term
| Hershey- Chase Experiments |
|
Definition
| 1952, Elucidated that genes are made of DNA, DNA structure still remained unknown |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1953, Using Maurice Wilkins crystalline DNA, photographs X Ray diffraction patterns |
|
|
Term
| Francis Crick and James Watson |
|
Definition
| 1953, deduced structure of DNA and predicted that DNA replicated in a semi-conservative manner |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of a nucleotide? |
|
Definition
| A phosphate group, Nitrogenous base, and a sugar group |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the large bases, Adenine & guanine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small bases, Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil |
|
|
Term
| How are base pairs bonded? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is conservative replication? |
|
Definition
| Mode of DNA replication in which an intact double helix acts as a template for a new double helix. In which the initial double helix splits, complementary strands are formed on each of the original strands, and than the original strand re-joins, and the newly formed strands come together to form daughter DNA |
|
|
Term
| What is semi-conservative replication? |
|
Definition
| Produces two copies that each contain one of the original strands and one new strand |
|
|
Term
| What is dispersive replication? |
|
Definition
| Produces two copies of the DNA, both containing distinct regions of DNA composed of either both original strands or both new strands |
|
|
Term
| What is the meselson- stahl experiment? |
|
Definition
| 1958, using 14N and 15N, they found that after replication DNA contained an intermediate amount of the two isotopes, suggesting semi- conservative replication |
|
|
Term
| What are the critical enzymes for DNA replication? |
|
Definition
| DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase |
|
|
Term
| What does DNA helicase do? |
|
Definition
| seperates the strands of a DNA molecule, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the steps of the ladder. The DNA helix unwinds and a replication bubble forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| helps to synthesize new pieces of DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Joins small DNA segments on the lagging strand |
|
|
Term
| Describe how DNA copies itself on the leading strand? |
|
Definition
| DNA replication starts at the replication site, replication moves towards the replication fork, helicase breaks hydrogen bonds to seperate DNA strands, single binding protein supports the seperated strands of DNA,RNA primase adds an RNA primer at the beginning of the DNA strand Polymerase initiates the process of replication, and adds nucleotides to preexisting nucleotides, Nucleotide replacement enzyme will replace RNA primer with the DNA |
|
|
Term
| Describe how DNA copies itself on the lagging strand |
|
Definition
| Built in segments,Replication moves away from the replication fork, RNA primase puts primers at each new section, Polymerase adds nucleotides to preexisting nucleotides, Nucleotide replacement enzyme will replace the RNA primer, DNA ligase joins the ends of the newly synthesized segments after primers have been removed |
|
|
Term
| What are the segments called in lagging strand replication? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In which way does DNA replicate? |
|
Definition
| from the 3 prine to 5 prine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Change in base sequence of one or more genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Change in the position of a portion of a gene |
|
|
Term
| What happens with there are mutations or recombination in germ line tissue? |
|
Definition
| Provides the raw material for evolution |
|
|
Term
| What happens with mutations in somatic tissue? |
|
Definition
| Can have an immediate impact if the genes affected alter the development or regulate cell division |
|
|
Term
| What is base substitution? |
|
Definition
| Substitution of one or a few bases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Additional copies of a repeated 3-base sequence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Loss of one or a few bases |
|
|
Term
| What is chromosomal rearrangement? |
|
Definition
| genes are rearranged on a chromosome |
|
|
Term
| What is insertional inactivation? |
|
Definition
| addition of a transposon within a gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The griffith experiment showed how DNA can be passed from dead strains of pathogenic baterium to transform a non-virulent strain into one that is pathogenic, thus proving that DNA is the genetic material |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The building blocks of the nucleic acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Agents thought to cause cancer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrogen bonds form between the pairing bases inside the DNA molecule, keeping the molecule at a constant thickness |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An agent(usually radiation or chemical) that causes damage to DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Possess genetic material that can be passed on, germline cells undergo mitosis to produce gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genetic information cannot be passed on, non reproductive cells |
|
|
Term
| Proof reading function of the DNA polymerase |
|
Definition
| 3 exo-nuclease site catalyzes the removal of several nucleotides from the 3 prine end of the growing strand when a wrong base is added to DNA strand. A mutation is detected by the size of the nucleotides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A haploid reproductive cell. Upon fertilization its nucleus fuses with that of another gamete cell of the opposite sex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The diploid cell resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cell with a double set of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a cell with only one set of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fertilization, the union of male and female gametes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Alternation of meiosis and fertilization (germ line cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mitotic division(or binary fission) (somatic cells) |
|
|
Term
| Pierre- Joseph Van Beneden |
|
Definition
| 1887; proposed that gametes are haploid and join to produce a zigote by fertilization or syngamy |
|
|
Term
| What are the disadvantages of sexual reproduction? |
|
Definition
| disruption of advantageous genes & recombination not likely to improve complex adaptions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Synapsis may have evolved as means to repair damaged DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1965, as mutations accumulate in asexually reproducing species, sexual reproduction may have evolved to keep the number of mutations down |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sexual reproduction allows alleles that may seem detrimental to exist until they have the possibility to be useful as species try to keep up with changing physical conditions and biological challenges |
|
|
Term
| What are the unique Characteristics of meiosis? |
|
Definition
| Crossing over, synapsis, & reduction division |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An essential element of meiosis occuring during prophase when nonsister chromatids exchange portions of DNA strands, because of crossing over no haploid cells are the same |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The close pairing of homologous chromosomes that occurs early in prophase 1 of meiosis. With the genes of chromosomes thus aligned, a DNA strandof one homologue can pair with the complementary DNA strand of another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The first cell division in meiosis, where germ line cells are formed. A unique event in which the chromosome number is reduced from diploid(46 chromosomes) to haploid (23 chromosomes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occurs because the orientation of chromosomes on the metaphase plate is random. Each of the many possible orientations results in gametes with different combinations of parental chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mechanism that produces genetic variation in the process of sexual reproduction |
|
|
Term
| What are the Evolutionary Consequences of sex? |
|
Definition
| Sexual reproduction has the capacity to generate new genetic combinations, Independent assortment, Crossing Over, Random Fertilization, Importance of generating diversity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The type of cell division that happens only in germ cells and leads to the production of gametes |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, what happens in prophase I? |
|
Definition
| Homologous chromosomes further condense and pair. Crossing Over occurs, spindle fibers form. |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, What happens in Metaphase I? |
|
Definition
| Microtubule spindle apparatus attaches to chromosomes. Homologous pairs align along spindle equator. |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, what happens in anaphase I? |
|
Definition
| Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, what happens in telophase I? |
|
Definition
| One set of paired chromosomes arrives at each pole, and nuclear division begins. |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, What happens in prophase II? |
|
Definition
| Chromosomes recondense. Spindle fibers form between centrioles |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, what happens in metaphase II? |
|
Definition
| Microtubule spindle apparatus attaches to chromosomes. Chromosomes align along the spindle. |
|
|
Term
| In meiosis, what happens in anaphase II? |
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids seperate and move to opposite poles |
|
|
Term
| In Meiosis, what happens in telophase II? |
|
Definition
| Chromatids arrive at each pole, and cell division begins |
|
|
Term
| What is the end result of meiosis |
|
Definition
| When cell division is complete, Each cell ends up with half the original number of chromosomes, four haploid daughter cells |
|
|
Term
| What is the central dogma of Molecular Biology? |
|
Definition
DNA --> RNA --> Protein
The key organization used by cells to express their genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The process whereby a messenger RNA molecule is synthesized from a portion of the DNA molecule in the nucleus, and is the first step in gene expression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The second stage of gene expression in which a ribosome assembles a poly peptide, using the mRNA to specify the amino acids |
|
|
Term
| describe what happens in Transcription |
|
Definition
| RNA polymerase binds to one strand of a DNA double helix at a particular site called the promoter and then moves along the DNA strand, as it moves along it pairs each nucleotide with the complementary RNA version, building an mRNA chain in the 5' to 3' direction, the mRNA strand is then sent from the nucleus into the cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
| The protein making factory |
|
Definition
| Ribosomes use mRNA to direct the assembly of polypeptides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ribosomes are composed of two subunits a large subunit(consisting of three sites E,P, &A) and a small subunit |
|
|
Term
| Describe what happens in translation |
|
Definition
| the large ribosomal subunit and the small ribosomal subunit attach to the mRNA, the mRNA will pass through the whole ribosomal unit three nucleotides at a time. A tRNA molecule first binds to the A site in the ribosome bringing a new amino acid to fit that codon. As each new tRNA brings in an amino acid to each new codon presented at the A site, the old tRNA paired with the previous codon is passed over to the P site where peptide bonds form between the incoming amino acid and the growing peptide chain. The tRNA in the P site eventually shifts to the E site ( the exit site), and the amino acid is attached to the end of a growing amino acid chain. The tRNA is then released. Translation continues unil a stop codon is encountered which signals the end of the polypeptide. The ribosome complex falls apart and the polypeptide is released into the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfer RNA, brings amino acids to the ribosome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ribosomal RNA ( the large subunit and small subunit) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A section of a gene that contains a coding region, the exons provide the instructions for making a protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Extra nucleotide sequences in DNA that code for nothing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cluster of genes that is transcribed as a unit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Each three nucleotide block in a gene correspondes to a specific amino acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The three nucleotide sequence on mRNA that corresponds to an amino acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The site on the DNA to which the RNA polymerase binds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Help RNA polymerase find its binding site |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The three nucleotide sequence on the tRNA molecule that is complementary to the mRNA codon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Jumping genes; can move from one chromosome to another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contains only exons, RNA complexes exise out the introns and join the exons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contains both introns and exons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| By using different combinations of the same exons, different proteins can be created |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most eukaryotic genes exist in multiple copies called multigene families |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Required for RNA polymerase to operate correctly at the operon, binds to DNA when glucose and lactose levels are low, but transcripion only proceeds when lactose is present. Activators work with repressors to control transcription in the lac operon |
|
|
Term
| Mendels first law of heredity |
|
Definition
| Segregation: The two alleles of a trait separate from each other during the formation of gametes, so that half of the gametes will carry one copy and half will carry the other copy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the result of crossing two individuals who are true breeding for two different characters. F1 result |
|
|
Term
| Mendel's Second Law of Heredity |
|
Definition
| Independent Assortment: Genes located on different chromosomes are inherited independently of one another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Characters can show a range of small differences when multiple genes act jointly to influence a character |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an allele that has more than one effect on a phenotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Not all alternative alleles are either fully dominant or fully recessive in heterozygotes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The degree to which many alleles are expressed depends on the environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One gene modifies the phenotypic expression produced by the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A gene may have more than two alleles in a population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency of close together genes to segregate together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the failure of chromosome to separate correctly during either meiosis one or meiosis two |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an abnormal chromosome number |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Down syndrome is caused by having an extra copy of chromosome 21 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Down syndrome is caused by having an extra copy of chromosome 21 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Resessive genetic disorder |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Recessive heredity disorder, affected individuals are homozygous recessive and carry a mutated gene that produces a defective version of hemoglobin. Confers resistence to malaria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| disease caused by recessive allele, deteriorates the brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dominant genetic disorder, deterioration of brain cells, every individual who carries the allele expresses the disorder |
|
|
Term
| amniocentesis & chorionic villus sampling |
|
Definition
| checking for chromosomal analysis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| occurs when a new individual is formed by the union of two cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A special type of reproduction in which offspring are produced from unfertilized eggs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a reproductive strategy in which one individual has both testes and sperm and so can produce both sperm and eggs, most hermaphroditic organisms require another individual to reproduce |
|
|
Term
| Sequential hermaphroditism |
|
Definition
| A process in which individuals can change their sex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in sequential hermaphroditism, changing from female to male |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in sequential hermaphroditism, changes from male to female |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gametes are released into the water, common in amphibians and bony fish |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| male gametes are introduced into the female reproductive tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the introduction of sperm by the male into the female body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The eggs are fertilized internally but complete development happens outside the mothers body; most reptiles, all birds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the fertilized eggs complete development inside the mother and depend on yolk exclusively for nourishment before being born alive. Cartilaginous fish, some bony fish, and many reptiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the young develop within the mother and obtain nourishment from their mothers blood before being born alive. Almost most mammals, some catilaginous fish, some amphibians and reptiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Give birth to fetuses that are incompletely developed, they complete their development in the pouch of their mothers skin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Retain their young within the mothers uterus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The embryo is male and will carry a gene of the Y chromosome whose product converts gonads into testes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The embryo is a female and the gonads will become ovaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gene on the Y chromosome that determines whether or not developing embryo is male. Once testes form in the embryo, they secrete testosterone that influences other male traits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Female mammals undergo cycles in which they are fertile |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Urinary, Defecatory, and reproductive systems all open into a single duct, Lay water tight eggs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Females ovulate only after copulation as a result of a reflex stimulation of LH, Extremely fertile |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Changes in the secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary causes changes in egg cell development and hormone secretion in the ovaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Changes in the secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary causes changes in egg cell development and hormone secretion in the ovaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Changes in the secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary causes changes in egg cell development and hormone secretion in the ovaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The forceful ejection of 2 to 5 ml of semen, Males with fewer than 20 million sperm per ml are considered sterile |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A females ovaries contain some 2 million oocytes, all of which have begun the first meiotic division, each oocytes waits to recieve the proper developmental signal to continue on with meiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One or a few of these oocytes are initiated to continue their development, FSH is the signal. Only about 400 of the 2 million oocytes a woman is born with is actually ovulated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The uterus is lined with a stratified epithelial membrane, the surface of the endometrium is shed during menstration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| First phase in the menstrual cycle, In which an egg reaches maturation and is ovulated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Second Phase in menstrual cycle, where the body prepares for pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Controls the family of hormones that coordinates the phases of menstration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Period of cell division immediately after fertilization, The zygote divides rapidly into a larger and larger number of smaller and smaller cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Resulting from cleavage, it is a mass of about 36 cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Each individual cell in the morula |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hallow ball of 500- 2,000 cells, The embryonic stage that implants in the endometrium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fluid filled cavity within the blastocyst, within the ball is an inner cell mass concentrated at one pole that goes on to form the developing embryo |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The outer sphere of cells on the blastocyst, that releases hCG which maintains the corpus luteum and prevents menstration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Membrane which encloses the developing embryo |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Forms from the trophoblast and interacts with the uterine tissue to form the placenta |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Connects the developing embryo to the blood supply of the mother |
|
|
Term
| Why must fertilization occur in the fallopian tubes? |
|
Definition
| The ovum rapidly loses its ability to participate in development, but the zygote must be in the proper stage of development for implantation in the uterus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The oocyte and its surrounding mass of tissue |
|
|
Term
| Describe the Group that gave rise to the primates |
|
Definition
| About 65 million years ago a group of arboreal, nocturnal animals, called archonta underwent adaptive radiation and out of this group evolved the bats, tree shrews, and primates |
|
|
Term
| List the characteristics of the early primates |
|
Definition
| Grasping fingers and toes, and binocular vision |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Around 40 million years ago,the earliest primates split into two groups, one being the prosimians, they are nocturnal and eat plant material.Example: Tarsiers & Lemurs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| also called higher primates, include monkeys, apes, and humans. Arose in Africa, gave rise to the monkeys,Old world and new world monkeys(SOuth America), About 25 million years ago anthropoids in Africa gave rise to the Old World Monkeys and to the hominids( the group leading to humans) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| None of the old world monkeys have prehensile tails, and includes both have ground dwellers and arboreal species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Originating in South America, are arboreal, and have prehensile tails |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Including, apes and hominids, humans and their ancestors. Evolved from Anthropoids. |
|
|
Term
| Characterize the living apes |
|
Definition
| Living apes include gibbon, orangutang, gorilla, and chimpanzee. Apes have larger brains than monkeys and lack a tail. |
|
|
Term
| Which ape is the closest living relative to humans? |
|
Definition
| Chimpanzee with 98.4% of the same nuclear DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The evolution of bipedalism marks the beginning of the hominids, but the origins of bipedalism is unknown for now. Evidence of bipedalism was found 4 million years ago |
|
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Term
| Climatic Changes that favored evolutionary change in hominids |
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Definition
| 5 to 10 million years ago, the climate cooled, and the vast forests receeded, giving way to open savannahs, Bipedal hominids responded by moving out onto the savannah. The first line to adapt to this was Australopithecus |
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Term
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Definition
| Walked upright, their dentition was hominid, but had small cranial capacity. Modern Humans appeared in Africa about 600K years ago |
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Term
| Australopithecus anamensis |
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Definition
| Slightly built individuals represent the true base of our family tree |
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Definition
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Term
| Australopithecus Africanus |
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Definition
| Thought to be the first human ancestor, humans would have evolved from this 2 million years ago |
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Term
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Definition
| Also dubbed handy man because of extensive tool use, this human is similar in build to the australopithecines, short stature |
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Definition
| This group had even larger brains and small teeth like more modern humans and is thought to be the most likely ancestor to the later species of homo |
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Term
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Definition
| Without a doubt, this was an early human, nicknamed Peking man, or java man, this species survived over a million years, longer than any other species of human. Able to talk, social |
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Term
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Definition
| The modern species of humans, arising from africa 600,000 years ago. We are the only surviving species of homo. Human Evolution has been characterized by increasing brain size, conceptual thought, and the development of symbolic language |
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Term
| Identify traits of modern humans that make us unique among the animals |
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Definition
| We attempt to modify and control the earth environment |
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Definition
| Compared to humans, neanderthals were short, stalky, and powerfully built, their skulls were massive. About 130k neanderthals appeared in Europe. They did not interbreed with members of homosapiens. Common in europe and Asia 70 K years ago |
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Term
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Definition
| Fossils of these early members of homo sapiens date back as late as 100k years ago in Europe. They appear to have completely replaced the neandethals around 34 k years ago |
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Term
| Recently Out of Africa Model |
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Definition
| The view of homo evolution states that homo sapiens evolved in Africa and then migrated to Europe and Asia. Fossils of Homo sapiens in Africa support this |
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Term
| Multi Regional Hypothesis |
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Definition
| This view of homo evolution states that the human races evolved independently from homo erectus in different parts of the world |
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Term
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Definition
| Only Evolution can be tested to explain the origin of life |
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Term
| Forming Lifes Building Blocks |
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Definition
| The first organic molecules are believed to have formed spontaneously from building blocks subjected to lightening and UV radiation. Miller and Urey reconstructed the oxygen- free early atmosphere, and conducted experiments that confirmed these beliefs. Recent findings of even older fossils, however have refuted the findings of their experiments. Currently, a bubble model for the formation of early organic molecules is being examined |
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Term
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Definition
| Scientists now suspect that the first macromolecules were not proteins but RNA molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| Most scientists believe that the first cells aggregated spontaneously as microdrops that eventually were able to incorporate molecules and energy. It took millions of years for the first cell to develop |
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Term
| Stanley Miller and Harold Urey Experiment |
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Definition
| When subjected to levels of lightning and UV radiation, many organic building blocks formed spontaneously, called the "primordial soup", Critics of this idea have pointed out that without an ozone layer( Present only in an oxygen rich atmosphere), UV radiation would have broken down the ammonia and methane in the atmosphere. These gases contain precursors needed to make amino acids |
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Term
| The bubble model of Louis Lerman |
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Definition
| Volcanoes erupted under the sea, releasing gases enclosed in bubbles, The gases concentrated in bubbles reacted to produce simple organic molecules. When bubbles rose to the surface they popped releasing contents into the air, being bombarded with the suns UV rays, lightening, and other energy, The simple organic molecule reacted to form more complex organic molecules. The more complex molecules fell back into the sea as raindrops, where they could start the process over again. |
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Term
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Definition
| A much simpler system than the polynomial for the naming of organisms was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus assigned organisms a two- part name called a binomial. He also grouped similar organisms into higher level categories based on similar characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The basic unit, used since the time of the greeks and romans. Used to classify organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| A particular type of an organism |
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Term
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Definition
| By convention, the first part of a binomial name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, and the second part distinguishes one species from others in a genus. The two names together are called the scientific name and are written in italics |
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Term
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Definition
| The Linnaean System is a hierarchial system that uses groupings, which each one in succession smaller and more specific than the one before it. From largest to smallest, biologists use the groupings kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. In addition an eighth level of classification, called domains, is used. |
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Term
| what are the 3 domains of life? |
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Definition
| Bacteria, Archaea, & Eukarya |
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Term
| What are the six kingdoms |
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Definition
| Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Plantae, fungi, animalia |
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Term
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Definition
| The evolutionary history of an organism and its relationship to other species |
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Definition
| A group of organisms, related by decent, that share derived characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of and reconstruction of phylogenic trees. It also includes the naming and classifying of organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| Unequal survival and reproduction of organisms due to environmental forces resulting in the preservation of favorable adaptations. |
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Term
| The concept of natural Selection was refined by the observations that... |
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Definition
A populations growth is checked by differences in fitness ( or capacity to reproduce)
Differences among individuals determine their survival or fitness
And that some of these differences are passed from parent to offspring |
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Term
| How do variations in natural populations occur? |
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Definition
| Inheritance of traits, random mutations in DNA |
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Term
| How does Natural Selection act? |
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Definition
| it acts on individuals within a population, over generations population changes as the percentage of individuals inheriting favorable traits increases. Populations evolve, not individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| Evolutionary Change of a grand scale |
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Term
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Definition
| Evolutionary change at the level of a population, adaptation results from microevolutionary changes that increase likelihood of survival and reproduction of particular genetic traits within a population |
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Term
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Definition
| Proposed that evolution occurred by the inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| Wrote Essay on the Principle of Population in 1798, provided Darwin with key insight |
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Term
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Definition
| Studies the history and development of the earth, including that of ancient plants and animals, based on the fossil record. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, fossilised faeces, palynomorphs, and chemical residue |
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Term
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Definition
| Provides information on the age of the earth |
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Term
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Definition
| Are structures with the same evolutionary origin despite differences in current function or appearances |
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Term
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Definition
| Structures with no apparent purpose |
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Term
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Definition
| Explains similarities arising not from a common ancestry, but as a result of natural selection of non-homologous structures that serves similar functions and resemble one another but have different internal anatomies (Analogous Structures) |
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Term
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Definition
| Indicates Common Developmental Steps. Some Common Structures such as gills and tails form when the genes are active that direct its occurence becomes active, then when these genes are deactivated and these structures disappear |
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Term
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Definition
| Indicates Common Developmental Steps. Some Common Structures such as gills and tails form when the genes are active that direct its occurence becomes active, then when these genes are deactivated and these structures disappear |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of individuals of the same species within an ecosystem found at the same time and capable of interbreeding |
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Term
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Definition
| The changes of allele frequencies in a gene pool over time, or the change in the genetic make up of populations over generations |
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Term
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Model |
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Definition
Used to describe gene pool frequencies that under certain conditions are deemed as inherently stable. These conditions are:
No Mutations
No gene flow
Population must be very large
All mating is random
Natural Selection is not occuring
This model can be used to discover the probable genotype frequencies in a population, and to track their changes from one generation to another. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mutations, Gene Flow, Chance Events and population size, Genetic Drift, Non random Mating, Natural Selection |
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Term
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Definition
| The source of genetic variation because they are the source of new alleles, new varaitions on which other evolutionary process can work. Mutations happen but they are not goal directed or as a result of anticipation of external necessities |
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Term
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Definition
When individuals move from one population to another, and interbreed in the new locations, they alter the distribution of alleles among populations. The effects of gene flow are:
Gene flow carries new alleles to other populations
Gene flow prevents the development of large differences in allele frequencies and prevents speciation |
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Term
| Chance Events and Population Size |
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Definition
| Small populations can be exposed to chance events that may alter their genetic composition and eliminate alleles. In large populations, allele frequencies remain stable, whereas in small populations there is greater probability that a given allele with disappear in a short time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Is the change in allele frequencies in a small population as a result of chance events. Two causes of genetic drift are the population bottleneck, and the founder effect |
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Term
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Definition
| Choice of mates is not random. Non Random Mating affects the distribution of phenotypes and genotypes, and influences the direction of natural selection. Assertive mating is the preference for mates that are similar. Non random mating also takes place through competition and in some cases on sex controls mate selection. |
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Term
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Definition
| Term used to describe a particle of a size between 5 and 500 micometers, found in rock deposits and composed of organic material |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of relationships between the genomes of different species or strains |
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Term
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Definition
| The collective descendants of a common ancestor; a race, stock, line, or breed |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of species formation, when a species splits into one or more different species |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the properties of genes in populations |
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of all the genes in a population, including all alleles in all individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| Genetic Diversity Decreases, Favors the norm, common, average traits in a population |
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Term
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Definition
| Favors the extreme traits in a population. Variance increases as the population is divided into two distinct groups. Plays a role in speciation |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when natural selection favors a single phenotype and therefore allele frequency continuously shifts in one direction |
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Term
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Definition
| Choosing a mate based on physical characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when individuals with certain genotypes mate with one another either more or less commonly than would be expected by chance |
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Term
| Biological Species Concept |
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Definition
| Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups |
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Term
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Definition
| Species occur in different areas, which are often separated by a physical barrier such as a river or mountain range |
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Term
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Definition
| Species occur in the same area, but they occupy different habitats. Survival of hybrids is low because they are not adapted to either environment of their parents |
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Term
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Definition
| Species reproduce in different seasons or at different times of the day |
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Term
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Definition
| Species differ in their mating rituals |
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Term
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Definition
| Structural Differences between species prevent mating |
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Term
| Speciation two part process |
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Definition
First, Identical populations must converge
Second, Reproductive isolation must evolve to maintain these differences |
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Term
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Definition
| Geographically isolated populations become new species due to their evolving reproductive isolation |
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Term
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Definition
| One species splits into two at a single locality |
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Term
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Definition
| Cluster of species changes to occupy a series of different habitats within a region |
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Term
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Definition
| Transferring Genes from one organism to another; major impact on medicine and agriculture |
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Term
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Definition
| Cleaving the DNA, Involves the use of restriction enzymes the bind specific sequences of nucleotides and split the DNA in that position. Since DNA is made up of complementary bases, both strands do not split at the same position. Instead, "Sticky Ends" result because the DNA is cleaved at an angle. These Sticky Ends can then be joined with any other complementary sequence using ligase, a sealing enzyme. Since only the ends are involved, the combining of DNA from different sources is possible |
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Term
| The Four Stages of a Genetic Engineering Experiment |
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Definition
Cleaving DNA
Producing Recombinant DNA
Cloning
Screening |
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Term
| Theory of irreversible determination |
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Definition
| animals cells become irreversably committed after the first cell divisions |
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Term
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Definition
| Cloning might be possible by removing the nucleus of an egg cell and replacing with a nucleus from another cell |
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Term
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Definition
| 1994 and 1995 successfully cloned farm animals from advanced embroys, using cells at the G1 checkpoint to conduct transfers between cells that were at identical stages of the cell cycle |
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Term
| Problems with Reproductive Cloning |
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Definition
Most embryos die in late pregnancy, large offspring syndrome
Development into adulthood goes haywire, most do not survive to live a normal life span |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves Chemical Changes to DNA that alters when genes are expressed without changing the sequences, Genes can be locked on or off, normal animal development depends on precise genomic imprinting |
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Term
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Definition
| Having the ability to form any body tissue, and even an adult animal. Embryonic Stem Cells are totipotent |
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Term
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Definition
| Cultures of cells derived from the epiblast tissue of the inner cell mass of a blastocyst or earlier morula stage embryo. |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be grown and transformed into specialized cells, and can be from a variety of sources including umbillical cord blood and bone marrow. These cells produce only one kind of tissue, The genes needed to produce other types of tissues are turned off |
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Term
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Definition
| Using Embryonic Stem Cells to restore damaged tissue. DNA from adult cells are used to create an embro from an individual. Stem cells are then harvested from the embryo, which is then destroyed. The tissue developed from these stem cells can be injected into the damaged host. There is no issue of immunological tolerance because the donor and recipient of the stem cell therapy are the same individual |
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Term
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Definition
| Small, Circular, Extrachomosomal DNA molecules. They can replicate independently of the genome, and are found in numbers ranging from one per cell to hundreds per cell. Plasmids frequently carry genes for antibiotic resistance. |
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Term
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Definition
| Medium sized, non enveloped icosohedral viruses, containing double stranded DNA. Generally causing respiratory illnesses |
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Term
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Definition
| Small Virus which infects humans and some other primate species. AAV is non currently known to cause disease and consequently the virus causes a very mild immune response. |
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Term
| Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR) |
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Definition
Technique to generate multiple copies of DNA.
Short sequences of DNA, called primers, are first synthesized
The primer sequences occur on either side of the DNA region to be amplified
The PCR technique is a way to generate a lot of DNA of interest quickly, rather than rely on bacteria to produce copies |
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Term
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Definition
| The DNA target sequence, primers, polymerase, and a supply of all four nucleotides are first combined in a solution; the solution is heated to about 95 degrees celcius, The polymerase used is a special heat resistant variety called taq polymerase. The heat causes The DNA to denature into single strands |
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Term
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Definition
Denaturation; Heating the reaction
Primer Annealling; Lowering the reaction temperature, allowing annealling of the primers to the single stranded DNA template
Primer Extention; DNA polymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand complementary to the DNA template stand by adding dNTPs that are complementary to the template in a 5' to 3' direction |
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Term
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Definition
| Complementary DNA, an intron free version of a eukaryotic gene for genetic engineering |
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Term
| Restriction Enzymes to produce DNA |
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Definition
| Restriction Enzyme cleaves the DNA, DNA from another source cut from the same restriction enzyme is added, DNA ligase joins the strands |
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Term
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Definition
| uses probes on DNA samples that have been cut with the same restriction endonucleases. The probes are unique DNA sequences found in non-coding regions of human DNA that are highly variable among individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| Enzymes cut the source DNA at specific sites, cleaving the two strands short distances apart |
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Term
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Definition
| A circular plasmid cut with the same enzyme is combined with the fragments of source DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| A variety of recombinant plasmids are produced. Plasmids are mixed with the bacterial cells. Some cells take up plasmids, and some do not. Each cell reproduces and forms a clone of bacterial cells, each clone containing one type of plasmid. All the cells constitute a clone library |
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Term
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Definition
| Bacterial Cells that did not take up the plasmid are screened out using an antibiotic for which the plasmid contains a resistant gene. Then those plasmid containing cells that possess the recombinant DNA are identified. Lastly, those cells containing the gene of interest are found using a probe sequence complementary to that gene |
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Term
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Definition
| Involves transferring healthy versions of a gene into cells that lack them |
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Term
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Definition
| Ethicists use this to weigh the risks verus the benefits when making decisions about potential therapy |
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Term
| Respect for Persons Principle |
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Definition
| Ethicists respect the right of persons affected by the procedure to make their own informed decisions |
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