Term
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Definition
| single-celled orgs, such as bacteria, in which the genetic material is not separated from the rest of the cell by a nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| a cell that possesses a well-organized nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| in eukaryotic cells, the part of the cell in which the genetic material is separated from the rest of the cell (cytoplasm) by a plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| in a eukaryotic cell, the region within the cell membrane that surrounds the nucleus; it contains organelles, which carry out the essential functions of the cell, such as energy production, metabolism, and protein synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| the cells of the body that are not sex cells |
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Term
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Definition
sex cells
sperm=male
ova/eggs=female |
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Term
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Definition
| undifferentiated cells found in the developing embryo that can be induced to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types or tissues. Also found in adults, although adult stem cells are not as totipotent as embryonic stem cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Means that stem cells can differentiate into any of the somatic cell types found in the fetus or adult |
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Term
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Definition
| DNA-double stranded molecule that is the carrier of genetic information. Each strand is composed of a linear sequence of nucleotide; the 2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between complementary bases |
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Term
| James Watson and Francis Crick |
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Definition
| The ones who discovered DNA was a double stranded complex molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| complex molecules formed from chains of amino acids (polypeptide) or from a complex of polypeptides. They function as structural molecules, transport molecules, antibodies, enzymes, and hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| the assembly of proteins from amino acids, which occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm and is based on information carried by mRNA |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA-single stranded nucleic acid that performs critical functions during protein synthesis and comes in 3 forms: messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA |
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Term
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Definition
| organelles in the cytoplasm of the cell where energy production for the cell takes place Contains its own DNA called mtDNA and has been used for evolutionary research |
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Term
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Definition
| ER-organelle in the cytoplasm consisting of a folded membrane where metabolic reactions take place because there is increased surface area |
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Term
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Definition
| structures composed primarily of RNA, which are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. They are the site of protein synthesis. |
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Term
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Definition
| molecular building block of nucleic acids DNA and RNA; consists of a phosphate, sugar, and base |
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Term
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Definition
| variable component of the nucleotides that form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. In DNA, the bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. In RNA, uracil replaces thymine |
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Term
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Definition
| Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) |
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Term
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Definition
| Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T) |
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Term
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Definition
| a complex protein that is a catalyst for chemical processes in the body |
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Term
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Definition
| protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| a natural substance (often a protein) produced by specialized cells in one location of the body that influence the activity or physiology of cells in a different location |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules that form the basic building blcoks of protein |
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Term
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Definition
| molecule made up of a chain of amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| the system whereby the nucleotide triplets in DNA and RNA contain the information for synthesizing proteins from the 20 amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| A triplet of nucleotide bases in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or the initiation or termination of a polypeptide sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| the fundamental unit of heredity. Consists of a sequence of DNA bases that carries the information for synthesizing a protein (or polypeptide) and occupies a specific chromosomal locus |
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA- strand of RNA synthesized in the nucleus as a complement to a specific gene (transcription). It carries the information for the sequence of amino acids to make a specific protein into the cytoplasm, where it is read at a ribosome and a protein molecule is synthesized (translation) |
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Term
|
Definition
| tRNA-RNA molecules that bind to specific amino acids and transport them to ribosomes to be used during protein synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Process where DNA splits and transcribes information of the gene from the language of DNA to the related language of RNA. RNA molecule is freed and turns into mRNA. mRNA carries information into the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. |
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Term
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Definition
| When mRNA binds to ribosome and protein synthesis is initiated. As each codon in the mRNA sequence is read, a tRNA brings the corresponding amino acid to the ribosome. This creates a chain of amino acids and turns into the protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| parts of a gene that correspond to the intervening sequences of the mRNA. This occurs during post-transcriptional processing |
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Term
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Definition
| parts of a gene that are actually translated into a protein |
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Term
| posttranscriptional proccessing |
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Definition
| after an mRNA is formed but before it reaches the ribosome, where intervening sequences in the mRNA are sliced out and the mRNA molecule is reassembled |
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Term
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Definition
| the diffuse form of DNA as it exists during the inerphase of the cell cycle. Uncoiled DNA supported by proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| Somatic cell division in which a single cell divides to produce 2 identical daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
| cell division that occurs in the testes and ovaries that leads to the formation of sperm and ova (gametes) |
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Term
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Definition
| discrete structures composed of condensed DNA and supporting proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| Condensed and constricted region of a chromosome. During mitosis and meiosis, location where sister chromatids attach to one another |
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Term
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Definition
| full complement of paired chromosomes in a somatic cell. In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs of different chromosomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| The number of chromosomes found in a gamete, representing 1 from each pair found in a diploid somatic cell. In humans, haploid number is 23 |
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Term
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Definition
| Members of the same pair of chromosomes (or autosomes). Homologous chromosomes undergo crossing over during meiosis |
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Term
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Definition
| The location of a gene on a chromosome. the locus for a gene is identified by the number of the chromosome on which it is found and its position on the chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| Alternative versions of a gene. Alleles are distinguished from one another by their differing effects on the phenotypic expression of the same gene |
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Term
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Definition
| Having the same allele at the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Having 2 different alleles at the loci for a gene on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or autosomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| the ongoing process of cell division and nondivision |
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Term
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Definition
| Stage of a cell's life when it is not in mitosis. At the end of this stage, the cell prepares for mitosis by replicated DNA and DNA is packed into chromatin |
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Term
|
Definition
1st stage of mitosis where:
- Nuclear envelope breaks down and disappears
- The chromatin condense and begin to form dense chromosomes. These chromosomes are actually doubled chromosomes, composed of 2 identical sister chromatids.
- The polar orientation of the cell for the division into 2 daughter cells is established.
The prophase often takes up at least 1/2 of the process of mitosis |
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Term
|
Definition
| where chromosomes migrate to the equatorial center of the cell and line up in orderly fashion |
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Term
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Definition
| sister chromatids split apart and migrate to opposite sides of the cell. When completed, there will be a complete diploid complement of daughter chromosomes at each end of the cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| cytoplasm splits in 2, resulting in complete separation of 2 daughter cells, each with daugther chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| DNA condenses into chromosomes and sister chromatids form. Double-stranded homologous chromosomes pair up, forming units that are in effect made up of four chromatids known as a tetrad |
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Term
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Definition
| exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during the first prophase of meiosis; mechanism for genetic recombination |
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Term
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Definition
| the rearrangement of genes on homologous chromosomes that occurs during crossing over in meiosis. the source of variation arising out of sexual reproduction; important for increasing rates of natural selection |
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Term
|
Definition
| Tetrads align along the equator of the cell. Then chromatid tetrads split, and a double-stranded chromosome is sorted into each daughter cell. So one daughter cell has 2 copies of the maternal chromosome. They are no longer identitcal to the parental chromosomes because of crossing over. |
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Term
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Definition
| Paired chromatids split resulting in a total of 4 haploid gametes with one 1 copy of each chromosome. |
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Term
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Definition
| the complete chromosomal complemetn of an individual; usually based on a photograph of the chromosomes visualized under the microscope |
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Term
|
Definition
| any of the chromosomes other than sex chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| In mammals, chromosomes X and Y, with XX producing females and XY producting males |
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Term
|
Definition
| The failure of homologous chromosomes (chromatids) to separate properly during cell divison. When it occurs during meiosis, it may lead to the formation of the gametes that are missing a chromosome or have an extra copy of a chromosome |
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Term
|
Definition
| When one chromosome in a pair is absent |
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Term
|
Definition
| when there is an extra chromosome rather than a pair |
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Term
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Definition
| A monosomy disease, when there is only an X chromosome (XO). Leads to delay or absense of sexual matruation, small physical stature, delayed mental maturation, and other physical abnormalties. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Trisomy 21- 3 copies of chromosome 21. Common fascial anatomy and head shape, short stature...etc. Mental disabilities, prone to heart disease and leukemia. Almost always develop Alzheimer disease. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Because proteins vary by electrical charge, can place small amounts of protein in a thin sheet of agarose gel and run an electric current through it. Proteins migrate across the gell. Protein can be visualized with dyes. useufl for detecting protein and allelic variation. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The sum total of all the genes carried by an individual |
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Term
| Polymerase chain reaction |
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Definition
| PCR-metho for applying DNA sequences using the Taq polymerase enzyme. Can potentially produce millions or billions of copies of a DNA segment starting from a very small number of target DNA. Allows the recovery of DNA sequences from miniscule samples, such as a single hair. |
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Term
|
Definition
| mtDNA- small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria. It is clonally and maternally inherited |
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Term
| Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) |
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Definition
| Discovered particulate inheritance |
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Term
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Definition
| Genes that contain the information to make a protein |
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Term
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Definition
| guide the expression of structural genes, without coding for a protein themselves |
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Term
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Definition
| the genetic makeup of an individual. Genotype can refer to the entire genetic complement or more narrowly to the alleles present at a specific locus on 2 homologous chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| an observable or measurable feature of an org, phenotypes can be anatomical, biochemical, or behavioral |
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Term
|
Definition
| refers to the gentic system for one of the proteins found on the surface of red blood cells. Consists of one gene with 3 alleles: A, B, and O |
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Term
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Definition
| in a diploid org, refers to an allele that must be present in 2 copies (homozygous) in order to be expressed |
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Term
|
Definition
| in a diploid org, an allele that is expressed when present on only 1 of a pair of homologous chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| in a diploid org, 2 different alleles of a gene that are both expressed in a heterozygous individual |
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Term
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Definition
| discredited 19th c. idea that genetic factors from the parents averaged-out or blended together when they were passed on to offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| the concept of heredity based on the transmission of genes (alleles) according to Mendelian principles |
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Term
| Traits Mendel tested in peas |
|
Definition
Seeds: Round/wrinkled
Pods: Full/constricted, green/yellow
Flowers: violet/white
Stem: axial/terminal, tall/dwarf |
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Term
|
Definition
| where there are only 2 different phenotypes |
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|
Term
What Mendel Postulates about his experiment |
|
Definition
- Hereditary characteristics are controlled by particulate unit factors that exist in pairs in individual orgs
- When an individual has 2 different unti factors responsible for a characteristic, only 1 is expressed and is said to be dominant to the other, which is said to be recessive
- during the formation of gametes, the paired unit factors separate, or segregate, randomly so that each sex cell receives one or the other with equal likelihood
- During gamete formation, segregating pairs of unit factors assort independently of each other
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Term
| Mendel's law of segregation |
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Definition
| 2 alleles of a gene found on each of a pair of chromosomes segregate independently of one another into sex cells |
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Term
| Mendel's law of independent assortment |
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Definition
| genes found on different chromosomes are sorted into sex cells independently of one another |
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Term
|
Definition
| genes that arae found on the same chromosome are said to be linked. The closer together 2 genes are on a chromosome, the greater the linkage and the less likely they are to be separated during crossing over |
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Term
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Definition
| a change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the change of a single base to a different base |
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Term
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Definition
| an autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in an allele that codes for one of the polypeptide chains of the hemoglobin protein |
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Term
| autosomal recessive disease |
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Definition
| a disease caused by a recessive allele; one ocpy of the allele must be inherited from each parent for the disease to devleop. Ex: Sickle cell disease |
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Term
|
Definition
| a change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the addition of one or more base pairs in the DNA |
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|
Term
| trinucleotide repeat diseases |
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Definition
| A family of autosomal dominant diseases that is caused by the insertion of multiple copies of a 3-base pair sequence (CAG) that codes for the amino acid glutamine. Typically, the more copies inserted into the gene, the more serious the disease. |
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Term
|
Definition
| an autosomal dominant disease caused by an insertion mutation. The trinucleotide sequence CAG is repeated 40-120 times, located on chromosome 4. It is a degenerative neurological disorder. |
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Term
|
Definition
| genetic conditions that result from mutations to genes on the X chromosome. They are almost always expressed in males, who have only 1 copy of the X chromosome; in females, the 2nd X chromosome containing the normally functioning allele protects them from developing X-linked disorders |
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Term
|
Definition
| a diagram used in the study of human genetics that shows the transmission of a genetic trait over several generations of a family |
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Term
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Definition
| X-linked disease characterized by mental and motor retardation, self-mutiliation, and early death. |
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Term
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Definition
| X-linked disease characterized by absense of one of the clotting factor proteins in blood. Vulnerable to hemorrhage and severe joint damage |
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Term
|
Definition
| phenotypic variation that can be characterized as belonging to discrete, observable categories |
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Term
|
Definition
| absense of pigmentation in the skin, hair, and iris of eyes. Good example of qualitative variation. You either are albino or you're not. |
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Term
|
Definition
| phenotypic variation that is characterized by the distributin of continuous variation (expressed using a numerical measure) within a population (for example, in a bell curve) |
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Term
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Definition
| phenotypic traits that results from the combined action of more than one gene; most complex traits are polygenic |
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Term
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Definition
| the phenomenon of a single gene having multiple phenotypic effects |
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Term
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Definition
| the proportion of total phenotypic variability observed for a given trait that can be ascribed to genetic factors |
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Term
|
Definition
variability caused by genetics
variability caused by genetics+variability caused by the environment
Range for 0-1. 0=all of the observed variations are due to enviro factors, 1=all due to genetic factors |
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Term
|
Definition
| a method for estimating the heritability of a phenotypic trait by comparing the concordance rates of identical and fraternal twins |
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Term
|
Definition
| Mz twins- identical twins that are genetically identical to each other resulting from an egg that splits into 2 embryos |
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Term
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Definition
| DZ twins- result from 2 eggs being fertilized, and share about half their genes, just like normal siblings |
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Term
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Definition
| PKU- autosomal recessive condition that leads to the accumulation of large quantities of the amino acid phenylalanine, which causes mental retardation and other phenotypic abnormalities |
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Term
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Definition
| natural selection that drives evolutionary change by selecting for greater or lesser frequency of a given trait in a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| selection that maintains a ceretain phenotype by selecting aganist deviations from it |
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Term
|
Definition
| movement of genes between populations |
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Term
|
Definition
| mating between close relatives |
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Term
|
Definition
| random changes in gene frequency in a population |
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Term
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Definition
| a component of genetic drift theory, stating that new populations that become isolated from the parent population carry only the genetic variation of the founders |
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Term
| Ellis-van Creveld syndrome |
|
Definition
EVC- genetic disease common among the Amish married outside. It is a form of dwarfism, and its victims always possess an extra finger on each hand and sometimes extra toes. Caused by genetic drift
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Term
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Definition
| temporary dramatic reduction in size of a population or species |
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Term
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Definition
| Differential reproductive success within one sex of any species |
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Term
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Definition
| Difference in size, shape, or color between the sexes. Usually brought about by evolutionary changes in male appearance caused by female mate preferences |
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Term
|
Definition
| The possible output of offspring by one sex |
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Term
|
Definition
| a measure of variation from the mean of a population in the reproductive potential of one sex compared with the other |
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Term
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Definition
| branch of biology that describes patterns of organismal variation |
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Term
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Definition
| similarity of traits resulting from shared ancestry |
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Term
|
Definition
| having similar traits due to similar use, not due to shared ancestry |
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Term
|
Definition
| method of classification using ancestral and derived traits to distinguish patterns of evolution within lineages |
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Term
|
Definition
| Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |
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Term
|
Definition
| branching diagram showing evolved relationships among members of a lineage |
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Term
| Law of Parsimony (Occam's razor) |
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Definition
| One should always seek the simplest explanation for natural phenomenon. Principle by William of Ockham |
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Term
|
Definition
| Numerical taxonomy. Relies solely on numerically describing degrees of similarity and difference between orgs, without biases created by knowing some groups are more closely related than others |
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Term
|
Definition
| an interbreeding group of animals or plants that are reproductively isolated through anatomy, ecology, behavior, or geographic distribution from all other such groups |
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Term
|
Definition
| formation of one or more new species via reproductive isolation |
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Term
| biological species concept |
|
Definition
| defines species as interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from other such populations. Proposed by Ernst Mayr (1942) |
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Term
| evolutionary species concept |
|
Definition
| defines species as evolutionary lineages with their own unique indentity |
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Term
| ecological species concept |
|
Definition
| defines species based on the uniqueness of their ecological niche |
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|
Term
| recognition species concept |
|
Definition
| defines species based on unique traits or behaviors that allow members of one species to identify each other for mating |
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|
Term
| reproductive isolating mechanisms |
|
Definition
| RIMs- any factor (behavioral, ecological, or anatomical) that prevents a male and female of 2 different species from hybridizing |
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Term
|
Definition
| evolution of a trait or a species into another over a period of time |
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Term
|
Definition
| evolution through the branching of a species or a lineage |
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Term
|
Definition
| speciation occurring via geographic isolation |
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Term
|
Definition
| speciation occurring when 2 populations have continuous distributions and some phenotypes in that distribution are more favorable than others |
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Term
|
Definition
| speciation occurring in the same geographic location |
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Term
|
Definition
| darwinian view of slow, incremental evolutionary change |
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Term
|
Definition
| evolution of major phenotypic changes over relatively short time periods |
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Term
|
Definition
| model of evolution characterized by rapid bursts of change, followed by long periods of stasis |
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Term
|
Definition
| a premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success |
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Term
|
Definition
| don't agree with adaptationism, and don't think every part is adapted because of natural selection |
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Term
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Definition
| paradigm that an org is the sum of many evolved parts and that orgs can best be understood through an adaptationist approach |
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Term
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Definition
| the starting assumption for scientific inquiry, that one's research results occur by random chance. One's hypothesis must challenge this initial assumption |
|
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Term
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium assumptions |
|
Definition
| 1. No mutation 2. No natural selection 3. no migration 4. no genetic drift 5. mating is random |
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|
Term
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| notion, largely discredited by the rise of Darwinian theory, proposing that animals act for the good of their social group or of their species |
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Term
|
Definition
| principle that animals behave preferentially toward their genetic kin; formulated by William Hamilton |
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Term
|
Definition
| reproductive success of an org plus the fitness of its close friends |
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Term
|
Definition
| an interbreeding group of org |
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Term
|
Definition
| an alteration in the DNA which may/may not alter the function of a cell. If occurs in gamete, can be passed down to offsrping |
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Term
|
Definition
| believe in creation, refute evolution |
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Term
|
Definition
| says natural selection can't account for diversity and complexity of form and function seen in nature |
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|
Term
| 3 Observations by Darwin in the Origin of Species |
|
Definition
1. All orgs have potential for explosive growth to outstrip food supply
2. our population is stable however
3. there must be a struggle for existence (nature full of variation, some variations must be favored) |
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|
Term
| 3 conditions for Natural Selection to occur |
|
Definition
1. Trait must be inherited
2. trait must show variation b/w individuals
3. filter b/w org and its genetic makeup is the enviro, which must exert some pressure in order for natural selection to act |
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Term
|
Definition
| theory that the same gradual geo process we observe today was operating in the past |
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Term
|
Definition
| the diversification of 1 founding species into multiple species and niches |
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Term
|
Definition
| differential reproductive success over multiple generations |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Charles Lyell (1797-1875) |
|
Definition
| Proponent of Uniformitarianism, gradual change occurs in physical world and if look at older rocks, will be more primitive in nature |
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Term
|
Definition
| created theory of uniformitariansim |
|
|
Term
| Charles Darwin (1809-1882) |
|
Definition
| wrote Origin of Species about natural selection |
|
|
Term
| Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) |
|
Definition
| Man who had similar theories of natural selection, but less money and status than Darwin |
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Term
|
Definition
| saw if left unchecked, human pops would grow rapidly, outstripping their resrouces and ultimately crashing b/c of famine |
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Term
|
Definition
| theory that there have been multiple creations interspersed by natural disasters (Noah's flood) |
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|
Term
| Theory of Inheritance of acquired characteristics |
|
Definition
| discredited evolution theory that changes occur during life and can be passed down to offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| Soviet era research program that tried to apply Lamarckian thinking to agriculture production |
|
|
Term
| Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1744-1829) |
|
Definition
| An anatomist and strong advocate of evolutionary change |
|
|
Term
| Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) |
|
Definition
| Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. Ex: Elephant reaching for food will grow a longer trunk |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Argued Darwinian thinking was capitalist in its focus on individual struggle for existence (Soviet) |
|
|
Term
| Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) |
|
Definition
| Author of Systema Naturae created science of classification called taxonomy |
|
|
Term
| Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) |
|
Definition
| accepted bio change. Noticed when animals migrate to new climate, population changes |
|
|
Term
| Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) |
|
Definition
| Cataclysmic disasters wiped out earlier forms of life aka Noah's flood |
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Term
|
Definition
| Ancient belief that people are derived from multiple creations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ancient belief that people are derived from single creation |
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Term
|
Definition
| biological classification |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| linnaen naming system for all orgs, consisting of a genus and species label |
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Term
|
Definition
| group of orgs assigned to a particular category |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hypothesis, Data collected, and hypoth either supported/refused |
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Term
|
Definition
| able to be shown to be false |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| a conceptual framework useful for understanding body of evidence |
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Term
|
Definition
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