Term
| Monosaccharides are simple sugars that consist of _____ and _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| Aldoses are named for their ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| Ketoses are named for their _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| The simplest aldose is _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| The simplest ketose is _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ and ____ are the most abundant monosaccharides |
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Definition
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Term
| Sugars have multiple ___ ____ ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| Sugars are either __ or __ based on the chiral carbon furthest from the carbonyl carbon |
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Definition
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Term
| Most sugars in living organisms are the __ form |
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Definition
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Term
| The chiral carbon is usually carbon #__ |
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Definition
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Term
| Enantiomers are _____ images |
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Definition
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Term
| Diastereomers are ____ images |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ are non-mirror images that differ in configuration at a single carbon (such as ribose and arabinose) |
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Definition
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Term
| __________ primarily exist in ring forms by means of a rxn between a hydroxyl and carbonyl |
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Definition
| Sugars with 4 or more carbons |
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Term
| cyclic aldehydes are also known as ___ |
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Definition
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Term
| cyclic ketones are also known as ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| Another name for a 5-membered ring |
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Definition
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Term
| another name for a 6-membered ring |
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Definition
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Term
| When sugars cyclize, the carbonyl carbon becomes a chiral center called the _____ _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| There are two possible diastereomers that form from cyclization and they are called _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| based on the stereochemistry, the anomeric carbon is either in ____ form or ____ form |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| when sugar forms spontaneously interconvert when dissolved in water - usually more alpha-D-glucose than others |
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Term
| 6 reacions of monosaccharides |
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Definition
| oxidation, reduction, esterification, isomerization, glycoside formation, and glycosylation |
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Term
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Definition
| change from an aldehyde to a carboxylic acid |
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Term
|
Definition
| change from terminal CH2OH to a carboxylic acid |
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Term
|
Definition
| when an aldehyde and the terminal CH2OH change to a carboxylic acid |
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Term
| aldonic and uronic acids can cyclize to form a ______ |
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Definition
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Term
| when can one use benedict's reagant? |
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Definition
| to oxidize monosaccharides: used to detect a reducing sugar in urine |
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Term
| which uronic acids are biologically important? |
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Definition
| D-glucuronic acid and L-iduronic acid |
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Term
| D-glucuronic acid and L-iduronic acid are _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| glucuronic acid combines with other molecules in the liver to ______________ |
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Definition
| improve solubility to help remove wastes from the body |
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Term
| Vitamin C is a form of _____ acid |
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Definition
| uronic (derived from D-glucuronic acid) |
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Term
| ______ of aldehyde and ketone groups of sugars results in "sugar alcohols" |
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Definition
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Term
| "sugar alcohols" are also called _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ no longer have terminal aldehyde because it's been changed to a hydroxyl |
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Definition
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Term
| _______ (D-glucitol) is commonly found in candy |
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Definition
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Term
| isomerization requires a(n) _______ |
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Definition
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Term
| glucose can convert to fructose and mannose in alkaline solution via _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| the intermediate required in isomerization is called a(n) ______ |
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Definition
| enediol (double bonded group and 2 alcohols) |
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Term
| _____ are involved in some rxns during carb metabolism |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ is when the free OH groups of carbs are converted to esters via reaction with acids |
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Definition
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Term
| what are the most common esters? |
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Definition
| phosphate and sulfate esters |
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Term
| ______ esters are found in carb metabolism |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ esters are found in proteoglycans |
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Definition
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Term
| the reaction of an alcohol with a hemiacetal or hemiketal produces _____ or ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the bond between two sugars called? |
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Definition
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Term
| when two molecules combine via glycosidic linkage, they are called a _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ are long chains of monosaccharides combined by a series of glycosidic linkages |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the acetal form of glucose is a _____ |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the ketal form of glucose is _____ |
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Definition
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|
Term
| in glycoside naming, 5-membered rings form ____ and 6-membered rings form ____ |
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Definition
| furanosides and pyranosides |
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Term
| the addition of methanol to glucose produces ____ ____ |
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Definition
| methyl glucoside (used in manufacturing) |
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Term
| in methyl glucoside, there is a link between a ____ group and ____ group |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ reactions attach sugars (monomers and polymers) to proteins or lipids |
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Definition
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|
Term
| what are N-glycosidic bonds? |
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Definition
| bonds that involve a bond between oligosaccharides and the amino NITROGEN of asparagine residues and link sugar to it |
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|
Term
| what are O-glycosidic bonds? |
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Definition
| bonds that involve a bond between an oligosaccharide and the hydroxyl OXYGENS of serine or threonine and link a sugar to it |
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Term
| ______ was originally called dextrose |
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Definition
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Term
| _____is the primary fuel for living cells and is the preferred energy source for brain cells and also for cells that have few mitochondria |
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Definition
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|
Term
| _____ is one of the most abundant biomolecules |
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Definition
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|
Term
| dietary sources of glucose include: |
|
Definition
| plant starch, disaccharides (lactose, maltose, sucrose) |
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|
Term
| liver cells can synthesize glucose via ______ |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ________ is produced by plants during photosynthesis |
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Definition
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|
Term
| 3 important kind of MONOsaccharides |
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Definition
| glucose, fructose, and galactose |
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Term
| _____ was originally called levulose - referred to as fruit sugar |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Is fructose an aldose or a ketose? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is twice as sweet as sucrose and is used in food production |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ___ is used in the male reproductive tract as an energy source for sperm |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is used in synthesizing numerous biomolecules used by cells |
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Definition
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|
Term
| cells can synthesize _____ from glucose-1-phosphate when the diet does not produce enough |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| when the enzyme needed to metabolize galactose is missing - can be a problem when it builds up (mental retardation) |
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Term
| ______ is involved in producing glycolipids and glycoproteins and lactose in breast milk |
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Definition
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|
Term
| in ____ sugars, a hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino group - often found in the complex carbs attached to proteins and lipids |
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Definition
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|
Term
| D-glucosamine and D-acetylglucosamine are examples of |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ____ sugars are monosaccharide derivatives that have a -H in place of an -OH |
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Definition
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|
Term
| linkages occur between the _____ carbon of one sugar and a ______ on another sugar |
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Definition
| anomeric carbon and hydroxyl |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| linking between anomeric carbon (carbon#1) of one sugar and #4 carbon on another sugar |
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|
Term
| always number carbons starting with the ____ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| lactose, maltose, cellobiose, and sucrose |
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Term
|
Definition
| disaccharide; milk sugar; a combination of galactose and glucose; has beta-1,4 linkage |
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|
Term
| lactose requires ____ to digest |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| disaccharide; the intermediate of starch hydrolysis; has 2 D-glucose molecules; has alpha-1,4 linkage |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| disaccharide; the degradation product of cellulose; 2 D-glucose molecules; has beta-1,4 linkage |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| disaccharide; table sugar; alpha-glucose and beta-fructose; beta-1,2 linkage |
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|
Term
| what is unique about sucrose's linkage? |
|
Definition
| it is beta 1,2 linkage (linkage between both anomeric carbons) |
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|
Term
| polysaccharides are also called ___ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _____ are glycans with up to 10-15 monomers |
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Definition
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|
Term
| two classes of polysaccharides |
|
Definition
| homoglycans and heteroglycans |
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|
Term
| _____ are composed of a single type of monosaccharide |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ____ are composed of two or more different TYPES of monosaccharides |
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Definition
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|
Term
| 3 important kinds of homoglycans |
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Definition
| starch, glycogen, and cellulose |
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|
Term
| polysaccharides like ____ and ____ have no fixed molecular weight |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is an energy reservoir in plant cells and a significant energy source in the human diet |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| starches are made of two different polysaccharides: ____ and ____ |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _____ is part of starch that is made of unbranched chains of d-glucose with alpha(1,4) linkages - it's a single linear chain that becomes a helix |
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Definition
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|
Term
| _____ is made of branched chains of D-glucose with alpha(1,4) and alpha(1,6) linkages |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _____-_____ breaks down amylopectin into individual monomers so you can absorb glucose into digestive tract and get it circulating |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| any sugar that, in an alkaline solution, forms some aldehyde or ketone. This allows the sugar to act as a reducing agent (like in benedict's reaction) - ring opens and becomes aldehyde and has reducing properties |
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|
Term
| what are non-reducing ends? |
|
Definition
| the end which does not have a reducing agent. It lacks a free glycosidic hydroxyl. |
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|
Term
| ____ is the carbohydrate storage form used by vertebrates |
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Definition
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|
Term
| ______ is most abundant in liver and muscle cells (8-10% of liver; 2-3% of muscle cells) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ___ involves compact branched chains of D-glucose similar to the structure of amylopectin (branches have closer spacing than amylopectin and are VERY very branched) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| glycogen has numerous _______ ends that allows cells to rapidly break it down and release glucose |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is the structural polysaccharide in plants made of D-glucopyranose with beta1,4 linkages |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _____is probably the most abundant organic substance on earth |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| in ______, unbranched chains pair together via H-bonds into bundles (microfibril - 40 pairs combine to form the structure found in plant cells) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| N-glycans, O-glycans, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), glycan components of glycolipids, GPI anchors (glycosylphophatidylinositol) |
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|
Term
| in __-glycans, sugar groups are linked to the nitrogen of the side chain made of asparagine residue |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the bond between the nitrogen (on protein) and the anomeric carbon of the N-acetylglucosamine (sugar) in N-glycans? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| chain polysaccharides have _____ linkages |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| branched polysaccharides have ____ linkages |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are linear polymers of repeating dissacharides (specific groups of two sugars linked together in a specific way - range from 10 to hundreds of disaccharides - unbranched |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| GAGs generally contain a __-_______ ______ ______ |
|
Definition
| 6-carbon uronic acid (CH2OH to carboxylic acid) |
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|
Term
| repeating groups in GAGs contain both _____ and _____ groups with negative charges |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ____ _____ keeps chains separated and the hydrophilicity attracts and maintains large volumes of water - vastly increasing the volume of space occupied |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, heparin and heparan sulfate, keratan sulfate |
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|
Term
| How are GAGs connected to protein? |
|
Definition
| via serine or threonine (except in hyaluronic acid - connects via asparagine) |
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|
Term
| which GAG is a component of cartilage? |
|
Definition
| chondroitin sulfate (negatively charged) |
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|
Term
| in chondroitin sulfate, ____ and _____ are linked together |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| chondroitin sulfate has a(n) ___-linked sugar at the end |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| which GAG is found primarily in the skin? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is a GAG that is an anticoagulant and is found in mast cells |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ____ is similar to heparin but has fewer sulfate and more acetyl groups |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| which GAG is found in the cornea, cartilage, and intervertebral discs? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| which GAG is found in the vitreous humor of the eye, backbone sugars, and synovial fluid of the joints |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| which GAG has two glucose molecules combined in a different way? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _____ are compounds that combine carbohydrates with either lipids or proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 types of glycoconjugates |
|
Definition
| glycolipids, proteoglycans, glycoproteins |
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|
Term
| ______ serve structural and functional roles generally on the surface of cells or in the extracellular matrix |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| proteoglycans have higher _____ content and are generally proteins linked to GAGs |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| glycoproteins do not usually have _____, ____, and ______ - they also have lower ____ content and more _____ |
|
Definition
| uronic acids, sulfate groups, and disulfide repeating groups; lower carb content, more protein content |
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|
Term
| _____ are GAGs linked to proteins |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| _______ are present on the cell surface or secreted into the extracellular matrix - they aren't held within the cell, but generated within the cell, link to proteins, and secreted from cell or bound to cell surface |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| in proteoglycans, GAGs are linked to ___ ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| proteoglycans use ___ and ____ linkages |
|
Definition
| N-glycosidic (linked to nitrogen of asparagine) and O-glycosidic (linked to hydroxyl group of serine or threonine) linkages |
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|
Term
| there is a large amount of diversity in proteoglycans due to: |
|
Definition
| number of different core proteins and variety of classes and lengths of carb chains |
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|
Term
| ______ ______ are a series of proteoglycans linked to a common central GAG backbone made of hyaluronic acid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ are a type of proteoglycan aggregate that includes a transmembrane core protein with a sugar linked to the outside of the cell (membrane-linked) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ are a type of proteoglycan aggregate that are linked to a membrane via GPI anchors (such a heperan sulfate) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ is a type of proteoglycan aggregate that is found in cartilage; it is a combination of chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate attached to a core |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| ____ _____ has a sugar backbone made of hyaluronic acid with core proteins linked to it and then more proteins (proteoglycans) linked to those core proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ______, N-linked carb chains are formed initially and then added to the protein during synthesis (sugars are added later) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ______, O-linked chains are built directly on the protein in the Golgi (and sugars are added at the golgi) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of glycoproteins |
|
Definition
| immunoglobulins, hormones, metal transport proteins, membrane proteins, ABO blood group system, and antifreeze in antarctic |
|
|
Term
| _____ ______ is a short repeating tripeptide sequence that keeps water from forming ice crystals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ and ______ residues attach to a threonine (O-linked) in antifreeze glycoproteins |
|
Definition
| galactose and N-acetylgalactosamine |
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|
Term
| in antifreeze glycoproteins, sugar residues form ____bonds with _____ and retards ice crystal formation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ is the layer outside most eukaryotic cells containing a large number of carbs; they serve as structural, signaling, and recognition roles for cells and tissues |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| what are some ways to increase the diversity of biomolecules to accomplish the many tasks required in cells? |
|
Definition
| alternative splicing and covalent modification |
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|
Term
| ___-_____ _______ includes phosphorylation, acetylation, glycosylation, etc |
|
Definition
| post-translational modification |
|
|
Term
| there is no _____ for sugars in coding - our body knows how to put sugars together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does the cell recognize the vast array of different carbs? |
|
Definition
| proteins (lectins) are able to bind to specific carb groups |
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|
Term
| lectins are also known as ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ are used in numerous types of interactions for recognition (especially cell-cell) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all the different types of sugars in your body |
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|
Term
| a ___ is a term used to refer to the set of sugar and glycans that can be produced - all the different combinations of sugars in our bodies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| variations of a specific glycoprotein |
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|
Term
| ____ is the breakdown of glycogen to produce energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ is the production of glucose from specific precursors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ ____ is involved in the production of ribose for nucleotides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ _____ is the building (glycogenesis) or break down (glycogenolysis) of glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are found in many plant foods (fruits and veges) and in whole grain in foods; they cannot be broken down by the body, but are important in our diet |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glycolysis is the breakdown of ____ to form __ ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| anaerobic organisms convert pyruvate to ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| aerobic organisms use oxygen as an electron _____ and convert pyruvate into ___ and _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the net reaction of glycolysis? |
|
Definition
| D-glucose + 2ADP + 2P + 2NAD -> 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H + 2H20 |
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|
Term
| NAD+ is used as an electron acceptor for what reason? |
|
Definition
| used in electron transport chain (in mitochondria) to make more ATP |
|
|
Term
| glucose is phosphorylated to form _____ and needs what? |
|
Definition
| glucose-6-phosphate; requires ATP |
|
|
Term
| _____ converts glucose to G6P |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hexokinase 1,2,3 are saturated at ____ concentrations of glucose and are _____ by G6P |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hexokinase 4 requires ____ glucose concentration and is ___ _____ by G6P |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glucose-6-phosphate is converted (rearranged) to _____ by ____ ______ |
|
Definition
| fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) by phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) |
|
|
Term
| which steps in glycolysis require/generate ATP? |
|
Definition
| glucose to G6P; F6P to DHAP and GAP; glycerate-1,3,-biphosphate to glycerate-3-phosphate; and PEP to pyruvate |
|
|
Term
| F6P is phosphorylated to ______ by _______ and requires ______ |
|
Definition
| fructose-1,6-bisphosphate; phosphofructokinase-1; requires ATP |
|
|
Term
| _________ is a major regulator of glycolysis and is inhibited by ATP and stimulated by AMP and F2,6BP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ is a bifunctional kinase and phosphatase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ cleaves fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to form _______ and _______ |
|
Definition
| aldolase; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) |
|
|
Term
| ______ reaction is thermodynamically unfavorable but proceeds because products are rapidly used |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the production of glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ converts DHAP to GAP |
|
Definition
| triose phosphate isomerase |
|
|
Term
| ______ removes a hydride ion from GAP and adds a phosphate to form ________ |
|
Definition
| glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; glycerate-1,3-bisphosphate (G1,3P) |
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|
Term
| the oxidation of GAP process also involves conversion of ___ to ____ |
|
Definition
| NAD+ to NADH (which also requires an inorganic phosphate) |
|
|
Term
| after converstion of GAP to G1,3P a ________kinase catalyzes the production of ____ from ____ and one of the phosphoryl groups on G1,3P, which then forms _______ |
|
Definition
| phosphoglycerate kinase; ATP to ADP; creates glycerate-3-phosphate |
|
|
Term
| ___-____ _____ involves the production of ATP from a molecule with higher phosphoryl transfer potential than ATP |
|
Definition
| substrate-level phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| at what point is the net production of ATP equal to zero? |
|
Definition
| when ATP is converted to ADP due to phosphoglycerate kinase |
|
|
Term
| ______ ____ interconverts 3-phosphoglycerate to ___________ |
|
Definition
| phosphoglycerate mutase; to 2-phosphoglycerate |
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|
Term
| the intermediate between 3PG and 2PG is ______ |
|
Definition
| glycerate 2,3 bisphosphate |
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|
Term
| _____ removes a water molecule from glycerate-2-phosphate (2-phosphoglycerate) or 2PG to form ___________ |
|
Definition
| enolase; to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) |
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|
Term
| the enol in PEP refers to the _____ bond |
|
Definition
| carbon=carbon double bond |
|
|
Term
| ___ ___ catalyzes the formation of ATP using the phosphate from PEP, also leaving ______ |
|
Definition
| pyruvate kinase; pyruvate |
|
|
Term
| _______ step gives ATP net production of 2 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pyruvate is first in the ____ form and is quickly changed to the ____ form |
|
Definition
|
|
