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| the scientific study of living things |
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| change in the genetic makeup of biological populations through time |
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| differential survival and reproduction among individuals in a population based on variation in their traits |
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| a group of organisms that can produce viable and fertile offspring with one another |
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| a group of individuals of a single species that live and interbreed in a particular geographic area at the same time |
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| two meanings; refers to both the processes by which characteristics that appear to be useful to their bearers evolve and to the characteristics themselves |
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| Difference between allele frequencies and genotypic frequencies |
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| allele frequencies measure the amount of genetic variation in a population; genotype frequencies show how a population's genetic variation is distributed among its members |
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an allele that does not affect the fitness of an organism
neutral alleles are unaffected by natural selection |
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| 4 key points for evidence of evolution |
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Definition
Mutation- any change in the nucleotide sequences of an organism's DNA. ultimate source of variation
Gene flow- migration of individuals and movements of gametes between populations. magnitude of effect is related to extent of differences between populations.
Genetic Drift- random changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. founder effect, bottleneck effect.
Natural Selection- differential survival and reproduction among individuals in a population based on variation in traits. |
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| the number of copies of the allele in the population divided by the sum of alleles in the population. |
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| the number of individuals that have a given genotype divided by the total number of individuals in the population |
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| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium |
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Definition
| a principle in which allele frequencies do not change across generations and genotype frequencies can be predicted from allele frequencies |
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| The conditions that must be met for a population to stay at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium |
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Definition
1. Mating is random
2. Population size is infinite
3. There is no gene flow
4. There is no mutation
5. Selection does not affect the survival of particular genotypes |
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| in regards to a phenotype, it is the the reproductive contribution of a phenotype to subsequent generations relative to the contributions of other phenotypes |
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| preserves the average characteristics of a population by favoring average individuals |
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| changes the characteristics of a population by favoring individuals that vary in one direction from the mean of the population |
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| changes the characteristics of a population by favoring individuals that vary in both directions from the mean of the population |
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| speciation that results when a population is divided by a physical barrier |
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| the partition of a gene pool without physical isolation |
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| the preserved remains of ancient organisms |
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| Methods of dating fossils |
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Definition
| using the half-life of radioactive isotopes; studying sedimentary rocks; radioisotope dating of rocks combined with fossil analysis; paleomagnetic dating |
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| Early events in the history of Earth |
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Definition
Earth formed- 4.5 bya
Bacteria present- 3.5 bya
Eukaryotic cells present- 1.5 bya |
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| oxygen levels approached its current levels and land masses came together, making good conditions for an explosion of life forms. happened over millions of years. life diversified in periods after |
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| the continents coalesced completely to form this supercontinent in the Permian period |
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| during the Jurassic period, Pangaea was fully divided into these two parts. One drifted north and one south |
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| angiosperm sexual reproduction |
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Definition
| occurs in the flower; involves mitosis and meiosis, and the alteration of generations |
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| 4 groups of a flower from inside out |
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Definition
| carpels; stamens; petals; sepals |
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| alteration of generations |
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Definition
| the alteration between haploid and diploid nuclei |
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| bear both male and female parts. in other words, hermaphroditic |
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| bear either male-only or female-only parts (flowers) |
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| there are two nuclear fusion events; one sperm fuses with the egg cell nucleus, the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei |
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| Adaptations in plants related to terrestrial life |
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Definition
| shift of importance from gametophyte to sporophyte; increased protection of developing sporophyte |
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| two general groups of seed plants |
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Definition
| gymnosperms- pine trees and relatives, angiosperms- flowering plants; all have reduced gametophyte, go through meiosis to produce spores, mitosis to produce gametes |
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| angiosperm gametophyte/sporophyte |
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Definition
| the embryo sac (where the male and female nuclei meet and fuse) is the female gametophyte (n), the pollen grain is the male gametophyte (n). the flower is the mature sporophyte (2n) |
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Definition
flower only when the day is shorter than a critical minimum
in other words, long night plants. they flower when the night is longer than the critical night length of nine hours |
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flower only when the day is longer than a critical minimum.
in other words, are short night plants. they flower when the night is shorter than the critical night length of nine hours |
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| Advantages of asexual reproduction |
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Definition
| it eliminates genetic recombination, so if a plant is well adapted to its environment, asexual reproduction allows it to pass on to all its progeny a superior combination of alleles. |
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| Disadvantages of asexual reproduction |
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Definition
| a change in the environment can leave an asexually reproducing species at a disadvantage because the population will lack the genetic diversity it needs for the population to survive (from a disease, etc) |
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| Sexual reproduction in animals in 3 fundamental steps |
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Definition
Gametogenesis: making gametes (haploid cells)
Mating: bringing gametes together
Fertilization: fusing gametes |
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Definition
| a process by which spermatogonium (2n) are generated into sperm cells (n). spermatogonium (2n)-> primary spermatocyte (2n)-> 2 secondary spermatocytes (n)- first meiotic division -> 4 spermatids (n)- second meiotic division, still connected by cytoplasmic crossbridges -> 4 sperm cells (n). |
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Definition
| process by which oogonium (2n) becomes a mature ovum (n). the oogonium goes through mitosis to form the primary oocyte (2n) which usually wont divide meiotically until puberty. the first meiotic division produces the secondary oocyte (n), and an uneven distribution of cytoplasm makes a polar body. the second meiotic division produces the ootid (n), and a second polar body. the ootid becomes the mature ovum (egg)(n) and the two polar bodies degenerate. |
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Definition
| the acrosome is the membrane-enclosed structure at the front of the sperm head and the acrosomal reaction is how it penetrates the female egg. It begins with plasma membrane covering the sperm head breaking down and the acrosomal process forming. this, combined with other enzymes and proteins, penetrates the egg's membrane and allows the "fertilization cone" to enter the egg. |
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Definition
the union of the haploid sperm and haploid egg, which creates a diploid zygote.
two types- external and internal. external fertilization allows animals to release their gametes into the water. internal fertilization requires the release of sperm into the female reproductive tract |
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the steps taken by a zygote in order to become a multicellular animal.
involves 3 processes: cell division/growth, cell differentiation, morphogenesis |
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| the development of form (3 germ layers- endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm); the overall consequence of determination, differentiation, and growth |
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| a rapid series of cell divisions that result in the transformation of the diploid zygote into a mass of cells. it is "the recovery of multicellularity" and "cell division without growth" |
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Definition
| in the process of cleavage in most animals, rapid DNA replication and mitosis with no cell growth result in an embryo becoming a solid ball of smaller and smaller cells. the central fluid-filled cavity is the ____________ |
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| what the embryo is called after much cleavage forms a blastocoel. the individual cells of this formation are called blastomeres. |
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| the process whereby the tissues are put into proper orientations; mostly a process of migration |
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| the three germ layers that form during gastrulation (morphogenesis) |
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Definition
endoderm- innermost layer; lining of digestive/respiratory tract, pancreas, and liver (gut).
ectoderm- outermost layer; gives rise nervous system, skin, mouth
mesoderm- middle layer; gives rise to many organs including heart, muscles, and bones |
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| Cleavage patterns (they are related to yolk amount and distribution) |
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Definition
microlecithal (homolecithal) eggs have holoblastic, equal cleavage.
mesolecithal eggs have holoblastic, unequal cleavage.
megalecithal eggs have discoblastic cleavage |
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| the initiation of the nervous system; one of the earlier processes of organogenesis- the phase of "development" when many organs and organ systems develop simultaneously and in coordination with one another |
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| formed by a group of cells that extend down the center of the embryo; it gives structural support to the developing embryo and is eventually replaced by the vertebral column. it also makes the spherical embryo long |
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| says the more closely two animals are related, the more similar their developmental patterns are. Also, primitive structures develop early and advanced structures develop later |
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ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
meaning that the way the embryo develops relates to the way that its ancesters developed from embryo to maturity |
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Definition
| have the same origin but different functions |
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Definition
| have a different origin but the same function |
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Definition
| it is the formation of an internal neural tube from an external sheet of cells. the first sign is the formation of the neural plate. the edges of the neural plate thicken to form "neural folds". between the neural folds is the "neural groove", which deepens as the folds roll over it converging to the midline. the folds fuse, forming the neural tube. |
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Definition
membranes that originate from the embryo but are not actually part of it.
the yolk sac provides nutrients to the embryo
the allantois functions to store the excreted matter of the embryo
the amnion is the protective covering of the embryo
the chorion is the protective membrane covering the yolk sac, embryo, allantois, and amnion
in mammals, extraembryonic membranes interact with tissues of the mother to form the placenta |
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Definition
| the uptake of water; the first step in seed germination |
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Definition
| the process of a seed breaking dormancy and developing into a seedling; it is completed when the radicle (embryonic root) emerges from the seed coat, when the plant is then called a seedling |
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| plant hormones that produces a growth-promoting chemical substance. released by the embryo |
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| the layer that underlies the seed coat |
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| a growth regulator that controls the pattern of growth by stimulating growth; it stimulates cell elongation. it is produced in the tips but migrates somewhere in the center. |
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Definition
| operates opposite but in conjunction with auxin to regulate plant growth. can work in the dark, because it is produced in the roots and travels to tips |
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Term
| Phytocrome red and phytocrome far-red |
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Definition
| phytocrome (a blue pigment) measures the length of day. phytocrome red absorbs red light and become phytocrome far-red. this form prefers far-red light, and when it does so it is converted back to phytocrome red. if there is a lot of red light, the day was long. a lot of far-red light means a long night. |
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Definition
| nutrients obtained from the soil, which many plants need. Include calcium, phosphorus, sulfur (needed for amino acid formation), iron (needed for pigment formation) |
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| a nutrient is called this if its absence causes severe disruption of normal plant growth and reproduction. |
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| derive their nutrition from eating other organisms. |
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can use solar energy or inorganic chemical energy to synthesize all of their components.
they are the source of organic material for heterotrophs. |
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| major requirements for animal nutrition |
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Definition
| a source of carbohydrates (most important), glycerol, fatty acids, lipids, amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, and nucleic acids |
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Definition
| elements required in large amounts (more than 100 mg/day) |
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Definition
| elements required in tiny amounts (less than 100 mg/day) |
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| like essential amino acids and fatty acids, these are carbon compounds that an animal requires for growth and metabolism but cannot synthesize for itself. |
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Definition
| includes B12 and C; polar, dissolve well in water |
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Definition
| includes A, D, E, and K; non-polar, don't dissolve well in water |
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Definition
| *an opening at each end; the buccal cavity is specialized for preparation of food, gizzard is specialized sac for furthur grinding, stomach or crop serves for food storage, intestine empties out into the anus. sphinctors are responsible for control of passage between regions |
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Definition
| mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa. (innermost -> outermost) |
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| "cud chewers". this stomach has four chambers; the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. |
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| the defense of the body against invasion, infection, and/or change. |
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| Functions of the Immune System |
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Definition
| recognizes a threat, eliminates that threat, then remembers that threat for future reference |
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| a yellowish solution containing ions, small molecular solutes, and soluble proteins. suspended in it are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. |
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| a fluid derived from the blood and other tissues that acumulates in intercellular spaces throughout the body |
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Definition
| also called white blood cells; they are larger than red blood cells, nucleated, capable of independent movement in bloodstream, and its levels change in relation to infection. two types: phagocytes and lymphocytes |
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Definition
| part of the humoral immune response, these cells bind free antigen to its antibody receptors. it secretes antibodies and has specific antibody receptors on its surface |
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| part of the cellular immune response, these cells kill all cells with exposed antigen on their surface |
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| proteins that bind specifically to certain substances in order to inactivate viruses and toxins. produced by B cells |
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| leukocytes that carry out the attack on the antigen. |
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| long-lived cells that retain the ability to start dividing on short notice to produce more effector and more memory cells |
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Definition
| says that a respiratory surface of a unicellular organism must have 1. a large surface area, 2. a thin permeable surface, 3. a moist exchange surface |
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Definition
| the exchange of O2 and CO2 on a respiratory surface (in mammals it is the alveoli). it requires a wet membrane. gas exchange systems are made up of gas exchange surfaces and the mechanisms that ventilate and perfuse those surfaces |
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| Three problems with gas exchange in humans |
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Definition
| skin is a barrier, surface area:volume relationships, and keeping membrane wet |
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Definition
| usually belong to water-breathing animals. they are highly branched and folded extensions of the body surface that provide a large surface area for gas exchange with water. can be external or internal. receive a constant supply of water through swimming, pumps, or operculum. |
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Definition
| generally belong to air-breathing animals. they are internal cavities for respiratory gas exchange with air. they have a large surface area because they are highly divided and because they are elastic (they can be inflated with air and deflated). less efficient than gills, but water loss is controlled by passing air over increasingly wet membranes |
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Definition
| a network of air-filled tubes that branch through all tissues of the insect body and serve as the respiratory gas exchange system for insects. the insect respiratory system communicates with the outside environment through gated openings in the sides of the abdomen called "spiracles". the spiracles open to allow gas exchange and close to decrease water loss. they open into the tracheae tubes, which feed into trachioles, then air capillaries (the actual gas exchange surfaces). |
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Definition
| the rate of metabolism determines the rate of oxygen consumption. greater activity and greater size = greater need for oxygen |
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| Countercurrent blood flow |
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Definition
| internal gills of fishes are supported by gill arches, which support the gill filaments, which are covered with rows of evenly spaced folds, or lamellae, the actual gas exchange surfaces. blood flows THROUGH the lamellae in the direction opposite to the flow of water OVER the lamellae. this countercurrent flow optimizes the PO2 gradient between water and blood, making gas exchange more efficient. |
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Definition
| use unidirectional ventilation to prevent dead space (air remaining in lungs after exhilation). in additon to lungs, birds have air sacs at several locations in their body. the air sacs receive inhaled air, but they are not gas exchange surfaces. they hold air so that air can continue to flow unidirectionally, because it all enters and leaves through one opening (the trachea). |
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Definition
| tiny, thin-walled air sacs that are the sites of gas exchange in mammals. for their small size, have a very large surface area (1/4 the size of a basketball court). surrounding the thin-walled alveoli are networks of thin-walled capilarries. gas exchange between the oxygen in the alveoli and CO2 in the blood occurs at these sites of little diffusion length. |
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Definition
| a protein consisting of four polypeptide subunits, each of which surrounds a heme group (the iron-containing ring structure that can reversibly bind a molecule of O2). has the ability to pick up or release O2. |
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Definition
| the form in which CO2 (a waste product) is transported by the blood to the lungs for breathing out. HCO3 |
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Definition
| system in which the extracellular fluid is the same as the fluid in the circulatory system and is called "hemolymph". a muscular pump, or heart, helps move the hemolymph through vessels leading to different regions of the body. the fluid leaves the vessels to trickle through the tissues before returning to the heart (generally through small openings called ostia). found in arthropods, mollusks, and some other invertebrate groups. |
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Term
| Closed Circulatory System |
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Definition
| system that completely contains the circulating fluid (blood) in a continuous system of vessels. blood cells and large molecules stay within the system, but water and low-molecular-weight solutes leak out of the smallest vessels, the capillaries, which are highly permeable. found in vertebrates and a few invertebrate groups, like annelids. |
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| Advantages of closed circulatory systems over open circulatory systems |
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Definition
1. fluid can flow more rapidly and can therefore transport nutrients and wastes to and from tissues more rapidly.
2. by changing the diameter of specific vessels, closed systems can control the flow of blood to selective tissues and organs to match their needs.
3. specialized cells and large molecules that aid in transporting hormones and nutrients can be kept in the vessels but can drop their cargo in tissues where it is needed. |
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Term
| Double Circuit Circulation (in closed circulatory systems) |
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Definition
| in birds and mammals, blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart in a PULMONARY CIRCUIT, and then from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart in a SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT. |
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| Single Circuit Circulation |
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Definition
| in fishes, blood is pumped from the heart to the gills and then to the tissues of the body and back to the heart |
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Term
| Path of blood flow in humans |
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Definition
| deoxygenated blood from vena cava (superior and inferior) flows into right atrium -> right ventricle -> lungs (to be oxygenated) -> left atrium -> left ventricle -> aorta out to rest of body. |
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Term
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Definition
| *both sides of the heart contract at the same time. contraction of the two atria, followed by contraction of the two ventricles, and then relaxation |
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Definition
| when the ventricles contract |
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Definition
| when the ventricles relax |
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Definition
| a group of modified cardiac muscles located at the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium, this generates a series of rhythmic action potentials that spread through the atria, making them contract. |
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Definition
| a nodule of modified cardiac muscle cells located at the junction of the atria and ventricles. it is stimulated by the depolarization of the atria, and it generates action potentials that are conducted to the ventricles via the bundle of His. allows blood to pass through ventricles and on to arteries |
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| Components of human circulatory system |
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Definition
| arteries and arterioles carry blood away from the heart, veins and veinules carry blood to the heart, capillaries are the sites of gas exchange |
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Definition
| plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets- cell fragments of bone marrow that are essential for blood clotting |
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Definition
| makes up 50-60% of the blood; made up of water, protein, dissolved nutrients, dions, hormones, and antibodies |
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Definition
| the amount of oxygen present; it determines the activity of hemoglobin. when pp is high, oxygen is taken up. when pp is low, oxygen is given off. |
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Definition
| fluid which does not reenter capillary at venous (back to heart) end goes into lymphatic system. the purpose of the lymphatic system is to return interstitial fluid (fluid around the cells) to the blood. once the fluid enters the lymphatic system, it is called lymph. small lymphatic capillaries eventually progress into larger vessels and ultimately into two large lymphatic vessels called the "thoracic ducts", which empty into large veins at the base of the neck |
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Definition
| found along the major lymphatic vessels, they are a major site of lymphocyte production and of the phagocytic action that removes microorganisms and other foreign materials from the circulation |
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Definition
| most marine invertebrates, they equilibrate their extracellular osmolarity with the ocean water. |
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Definition
| other marine animals, they maintain extracellular fluid osmolarities much lower than seawater. |
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Definition
| produced by the metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids; obviously contain nitrogen. the most common form is ammonia (NH3). because of its high toxicity, ammonia is either excreted continuously to prevent its accumulation or it is detoxified by conversion into urea or uric acid. |
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Definition
| animals that excrete ammonia; aquatic invertebrates and bony fishes |
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Definition
| animals that conserve water by excreting nitrogenous wastes mostly as uric acid; insects, reptiles, birds, and some amphibians. uric acid is not very soluble in water, and is excreted as a semisolid (bird poop). so the uricotelic animal loses very little water and gets rid of nitrogenous waste |
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Definition
| animals that excrete urea as their primary nitrogenous waste product; mammals, amphibians, and carilaginous fishes (sharks and rays). urea is quite soluble in water, and it excretion usually results in a large loss of water. however, mammals have evolved excretory systems that conserve water by producing concentrated urea solutions. |
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Definition
| simplest excretory system; found in protozoans and primitive multicellular animals. food and water are forced in and it keeps growing until it releases the excess waste |
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Definition
| the simplest tubule excretory system, a protonephridium is made up of a flame cell (with beating cilia) and a tubule. the beating of the cilia causes a slight negative pressure in the tubule, and extracellular fluid is filtered into the tubule cells. the filtrate flows toward excretory pores, and along the way specific ions and molecules are reabsorbed and secreted. the end result is conservation of ions and excretion of water and wastes. |
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Term
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Definition
| in annelids (the earthworm for example), each segment contains a pair of metanephridia. each metanephridium begins as a ciliated, funnel-like opening called a "nephrostome". the nephrostome resides in one segment but continues into the next segment. the tubule ends in a pore, called the "nephridiopore", that opens to the outside of the animal. there is reabsorption and secretion along the way and what leaves the nephridiopores is a dilute urine containing nitrogenous wastes and other solutes |
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Term
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Definition
| blind-ended tubules that open into the gut between the midgut and hindgut. they use active transport of cells to transport uric acid, potassium ions, and sodium ions from the the extracellular fluid into the tubules. the ions are later reabsorbed, leaving uric acid and other wastes in the rectum, which the insect then secretes. |
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Definition
| the functional excretory unit in vertebrates, many are grouped together into a kidney (mechanism primarily geared to get rid of nitrogenous waste). forms urine through three main processes: filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion. |
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Definition
| 3 parts: cortex, medulla, and pelvis. composed of millions of nephridia, blood enters via renal artery. fluid moves from blood into bowman's capsule. water and salts are removed and then proceed to proximal convoluted tubule, then down loop of Henle |
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Definition
| chemical signals that are released by certain types of cells and that influence the activities of other cells at a distance; transported by the blood. endocrine cells secrete the chemical signals, target cells have receptors for those signals. |
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Definition
| at 7 weeks- indifferent gonad. if fetus is male- testosterone is secreted, which stimulates formation of male organs. if fetus is female- no testosterone is secreted, gonads develop into female organs. |
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Definition
| aggregations of endocrine cells form these secretory organs. the name reflects the fact that these glands secrete their products directly into the extracellular fluid, which they pass into the blood. |
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Definition
| central part is the adrenal medulla, outer part is the adrenal cortex. adrenal medulla is responsible for the secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline. adrenal cortex secretes hormones involved with physiological homeostasis. |
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Definition
| sits in a depression at the bottom of the skull; generally categorized into two parts, the anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. |
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Term
| Posterior Putitary Hormones |
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Definition
| include antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- increases amount of water conserved by the kidneys, and oxytocin- stimulates the uterine contractions that deliver the baby, also brings about flow of milk from the mother's breast |
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Term
| Anterior Pituitary Hormones |
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Definition
| four peptide and protein hormones that act as trophic hormones (meaning they control the activities of other endocrine glands)-thyrotropin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and corticotropin. other peptide and protein hormones include growth hormone, prolactin, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, enkephalins, and endorphins. |
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Definition
| found as a result of a study on opiates. they are natural pain killers, found in runners |
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Definition
| this gland wraps around the front of the trachea and expands into a lobe on either side. there are two cell types in the thyroid gland, each producing a different hormone. epethelial cells, which make up round structures called follicles, produce, store, and release thyroxin. cells in the spaces between follicles produce calcitonin. |
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Term
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Definition
| these are four tiny structures embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. their single hormone product, parathyroid hormone (PTH), is the most important hormone in the regulation of blood calcium levels. |
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Definition
| hormones secreted from the pancreas, a large gland located just below the stomach, that regulate blood glucose concentrations. Insulin allows glucose to enter cells. Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down more stored glycogen and release glucose into the blood. |
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the cellular component of the nervous system. it can generate and transmit electical signals, known as nerve impulses, or action potentials. its anatomy consists of dendrites extending of a cell body (which contains the nucleus and organelles), the axon (conducts action potentials away from the cell body), and the axon terminal where the synapse (connection b/w two neurons) occurs.
there are 3 types: sensory, motor, and interneurons. |
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| Divisions of nervous system |
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| Somatic: deals with processes under conscious control Autonomic: deals with processes not consciously controlled; two divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic. sympathetic excites and parasympathetic relaxes |
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| a major ion transporter in the plasma membranes of neurons. it actively expels Na+ ions from inside the cell, exchanging them for K+ ions outside the cell |
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| the neurotrasmitter (chemical messenger molecules) used by all vertebrate neuromuscular synapses, it is released by exocytosis when the membrane of a vesicle fuses with the presynaptic membrane of the axon terminal |
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| sometimes called sensors or receptors, they convert physical and chemical stimulli into neural signals. these signals are then transmitted to the central nervous system for processing and interpretation. |
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| receptor proteins that bind to various molecules (via their ligands) and are responsible for smell and taste |
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| the sense of smell; depends on chemoreceptors. in vertebrates, olfactory sensors are neurons embedded in a layer of epithelial tissue at the top of the nasal cavity. an "odorant" is a molecule that activates an olfactory receptor protein. |
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| the sense of taste; depends on clusters of chemoreceptors called taste buds. the taste buds are also embedded in the epithelium |
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| the sensory cells that respond to mechanical forces |
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| the prominent structures on the sides of a human head are the pinnae. the pinnae collect sounds and direct them into the auditory canal, which leads to the actual hearing apparatus in the middle ear and the inner ear. the eardrum, or tympanic membrane, covers the end of the auditory canal and vibrates in response to pressure waves traveling down the auditory canal. |
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| contains three delicate bones called "ossicles". they are individually named the malleus, incus, and stapes. these ossicles transmit the vibrations of the tympanic membrane to another flexible membrane called the oval window. behind the oval window is the fluid-filled inner ear, and movements of the oval window impart pressure changes to that enclosed fluid. these pressure waves are later trasduced into action potentials. |
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| a bony structure consisting of two sets of canals: one is the organ of balance, the vestibular system; the other is the organ of hearing, the cochlea (which is long and coiled). a cross section of the cochlea reveals that it is composed of three parallel canals separated by two membranes: Reissner's membrane and the basilar membrane. sitting on the basilar is the organ of Corti, which transduces pressure waves into action potentials. |
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| The vestibular system in the inner ear |
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| consists of three bony "semicircular canals" and two bony chambers called the "saccule" and the "utricule". the entire vestibular system is filled with a fluid called endolymph. projecting into the base of each canal is a gelatinous swelling called a cupula that encloses a cluster of hair cell stereocilia. when the shifting endolymph pushes on the cupula, it bends the stereocilia. the stereocilia in the saccule and utricule are embedded with otoliths, gelatinous structures containing crystals of calcium carbonate. when the head changes position in any way, gravitational forces are exerted on the otoliths and bend the stereocilia, releasing neurotransmitters. |
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| *responsible for photosensitivity. a rhodopsin molecule consists of a protein, opsin (which alone is not photosensitive), and an associated nonprotein light-absorbing group, 11-cis-retinal, cradled in the center of the opsin and covalently bound to it. when 11-cis-retinal absorbs a photon of light energy, it changes into a different isomer of retinal, called all-trans-retinal. this change puts a strain on the bonds between retinal and opsin, changing the conformation of opsin. this change signals the detection of light. |
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| named for its shape, it is a modified neuron that does not produce action potentials. instead, rod cells release neurotransmitter from their bases where they form synapses with the next neurons in the visual pathway. each rod cell has an outer segment, inner segment, and a synaptic terminal. the outer segment captures photons of light passing through the rod cell. the inner segment contains the nucleus and junk. the synaptic terminal is where the rod cell communicates with other neurons. |
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| also named for their shape, these cells are responsible for the less sensitive color vision (rod cells pick up the highly sensitive black and white vision). they have a low sensitivity to light and allow us to see colors. proteins cause reactions to different absorptions of light- red, blue, green... |
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| found in many invertebrates (namely grasshoppers), they are light receptors that do not function as eyes. consists of eye cup and receptors |
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use many closely packed units called ommatidia, each of which is independent. relies on the formation of an image.
humans have camera-type eyes |
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| 3 characteristics of sound |
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| pitch, intensity, and tone quality |
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| Lateral line systems of fishes |
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| composed of clusters of sensory cells. pressure waves deflect hair cells producing stimulus. used to sense water movement (speed of swimming), current locations and intensities, and prey movement. |
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| homolecithal/telolecithal distribution |
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homolecithal eggs have evenly distributed yolk in the center of the egg
telolecithal eggs have yolk concentrated at one poll in the egg |
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euryhaline will have a broad acceptance of salts (like a tide pool)
stenohaline will have a narrow acceptance of salts |
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| founder effect/bottleneck effect |
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founder effect: the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a small population from a larger population
bottleneck effect: a "genetic bottleneck" that results when a considerable percentage of a population is killed or somehow made unable to reproduce offspring. |
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