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| assuming something to be true that really needs proof. ex: the unsanitary condition of the slaughter pens is detrimental to health. ex: this handwriting is hard to read, because it is nearly illegible. |
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| a question is set up so that argument is shifted to new ground, or an appeal is made to some emotional attitude having nothing to do with the logic of the case. ex: you should talk about the apartheld philosophy in Africa. Do you know what Americans did to Indians? |
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| using the same term with different meanings. (the word law, for instance, cannot be used to mean both natural law and law as established by an authority, in the same argument.) |
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| (latin, literally: "it does not follow") The conclusion does not folow from the preceding arguments. ex: tom does not drink or smoke, so he outh to make a good husband. |
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| the major premise presents a choice that does not exhaust the possibilities. ex: better dead than red. |
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| post hoc ergo propter hoc |
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| ("after this, because of this") it attempts to prove that because a second event followed a first event, the second event was the result of the first. ex: every time the Democrats get into office, we have war. Every time the Republicaans get into office, we have a recession. |
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| ("the argument to the man") turning from the issue to the character involved. ex: smith should not be elected. he just got a divorce. ex: smith should not be elected. his father is an alcoholic. ex: vote for smith. he's been married for twenty years, has four children, served in world war II, and attends church every sunday. |
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| an appeal for sympathy. ex Q: did you steal the money? A: I'm out of work, my family hasn't eaten in two days, my brother-in-law has just been arrested for stealing a car... |
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| hypothesis contrary to fact |
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| beginning with a premise that is not necessarily true and then drawing conclusions from it. ex: if i had not has mr. smith for a teacher, i would never have understood algebra. |
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| arguing that a group must have the same qualities or characterististics as its members. ex: each football player of the all-star team is the best player at his position in the entire country. Therefore, the all-star team is the best team in the country. |
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| arguing that an individual must have the characteristics of the group. ex: the all-star team is the best in the entire country. therefore, sam smith (the pitcher) must be the best pitcher in the entire country. |
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| an argument, based on an unqualified gerneralization. ex: excerise is good; therefore, everybody should excercise. |
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| the main premises contradict each other. ex: if God can do anything, can he make a stone so heavy that he will not be able to lift it? |
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| overgeneralizing (or hasty gerneralization) |
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| too few instances are presented to reach an accurate conclusion, ex: tall men like ice cream. |
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| premise and the common ground |
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| the terms of the premise must be accepted as true. ex: "all college graduates are geniuses" would not be a sound premise and would lead to the wrong conclusions. |
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| wrongful comparisons of dissimilar sutuations. ex: Doctors have x-rays to guide them during operations; therefore, students should be able to use their books during examinations. |
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| an appeal to authority. ("figures prove..." is a variation.) ex: it says so in the bible. my teacher says.. the priest said.. |
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| appeal to the crowd. ex: mah fehlow americans..(LBJ) |
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| proceeding from an unwarranted assumption to a forgone conclusion (includes fold sayings: "time is money"). ex: everybody knows... |
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| guilt(or innocence) by association |
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| ex: Max reads all those radical magazine articles that favor overthrow of the government, so he must hold the same views. |
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| requires absolutes which do not allow for intermediate cases. ex: do you want to go to college or dig ditches all your life? |
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