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Definition
| Aristotle's description of the animate world, in which everything can be organized into a linear graded series, without gaps, from simplest forms to divine powers. |
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| An Arabian scholar who translated much of Galen's work into Arabic, which was then translated into Latin in the 11th century and eventually acquired by European scholars. Galen was a Roman physician and anatomist who discovered that arteries carry blood, not air. |
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| Led to increased interest in differences among modern peoples. Pietro Martire d'Anghiera's descriptions on natives based on interviews with people who had visited the New World. |
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| Originating from Scala Naturae, it details a strict, religious one-dimensional hierarchal structure of all matter and life, believed to have been decreed by God. |
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| A Swedish doctor who wrote Systema Naturae. He recognized a nested hierarchy and was the first to classify humans with other animals. |
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| A book written by Linnaeus introducing binomial nomenclature. "A system of nature through the three kingdoms of nature, according to classes, orders, genera and species, with characters, differences, synonyms, places." |
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Definition
| refers to the way taxonomic groups fit neatly and completely inside other taxonomic groups. A well-defined set which contains and consists of other specified subsets. |
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| Envisioned the micro-evolutionary degeneration of species. Developed microevolution (including in humans, to create racial groups) due to climatic effects, but no new species. He wrote Histoire Naturelle, which was one of the most widely read works of the French Enlightenment. |
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Definition
| Idea of acquired characters, results of adaptation to an ever-changing environment, leading to evolution |
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| Monogenism vs. Polygenism |
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Definition
| Monogenism is that all variation was acquired after a single descent from Adam and Eve. Polygenism is the idea that not all races descend from Adam and Eve. Both were ideas to explain the large amount of racial variation being discovered. |
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| A naturalist who studied fauna on the Galapagos Islands and came up with the theory of natural selection to account for evolutionary change. He presented his ideas in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. |
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| The gradual process by which heritable biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of the effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive success of organisms interacting with their environment; a key mechanism of evolution. |
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| He argued that the human population increases in size at a geometric rate while our resources increase at only an arithmetic rate, resulting in overpopulation, death, and disease. |
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| He sent Darwin a paper briefly describing his own theory of evolution by natural selection. |
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| "Father" of physical anthropology. He solidified classification as the aim of study of humans. He coined the term Caucasians. |
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Definition
| The science of measuring the human body. |
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| He came up with the cephalic index to measure the head. Max width divided by max length. Classified into long, wide, or medium. |
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| He said that your personality can be detected by the shape of your head and bumps on your head. Some people are unable to excel in certain fields because their brains did not develop to do so. Women are intellectually inferior because they have smaller brains. |
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Term
| Lombroso and Criminal Type |
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Definition
| He claimed that an 'expert' could easily sort criminals into categories, and sort criminals from law abiders. |
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Term
| Morton and Cranial Capacity |
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Definition
| He said that a larger cranial capacity meant a greater intelligence. |
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Term
| Galton and Hereditary Genius |
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Definition
| He said that ability is genetic and can be measured by achievement. High-achieving men have many high-achieiving relatives. He founded the Eugenics Society to improve human species. |
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Term
| Boas and Environmental Influence |
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Definition
| He said environmental influence is important for both morphology and behavior. Races are not inherently superior or inferior. |
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| Stephen Jay Gould and brain measurements |
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Definition
| He reanalyzed Morton's data, showing a completely different picture. His research showed pretty equal cranial capacities among peoples. |
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Definition
A ____________ is a distribution of frequencies of traits that show a systematic gradation over space. Also known as continuous variation.
It required a new focus: to concentrate on distribution of human variation and explanations for it, with populations and individuals as units of analysis, recognizing continuous nature of human variation...skin color, cranial capacity, etc. |
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Definition
| "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogenous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence they have ever existed in the past...Humanity cannot be classified into discrete geographic categories with absolute boundaries" |
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Term
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Definition
the genetic makeup of an organism with reference to a single trait, a set of traits, or an entire complex of traits
an organism's actual observed properties, such as morphology, development, or behavior |
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Term
| Homozygous / Heterozygous |
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Definition
a genotype consisting of two identical alleles at a given locus
a genotype consisting of two different alleles at a locus |
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Definition
| one of two or more versions of a gene |
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Term
| Dominant / Recessive / Codominant |
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Definition
produces a dominant phenotype in individuals who have one copy of the allele
produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical
presence of the dominant and recessive traits, with the third phenotype showing both traits |
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Definition
| a diagram used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment |
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Definition
| a trait that does not follow any of the simple inheritance patterns, usually controlled by many different genes. Height, BP, etc. Usually distributed along a bell-curve |
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Definition
a trait whose phenotype is influence by more than one gene
one phenotype, many genes |
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Definition
| 2 ore more different forms or types of individuals among the members of a single species (i.e. blood types) |
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Term
| Microevolution / Macroevolution |
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Definition
changes of allele frequency in a population from one generation to the next
long term patterns of genetic change over thousands or millions of generations, includes the process of species formation |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the total pattern of genetic variation of a biological population |
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Term
| Allele / Genotype frequency |
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Definition
the relative proportion of each allele within a population (the number of each allele divided by the total number of alleles)
the relative proportion of each genotype within a population (the number of individuals with each genotype divided by the total number of individuals in the population) |
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Term
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and Assumptions |
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Definition
Given certain assumptions, there will be no change in allele and genotype frequency from one generation to the next (i.e. no evolution)
no mutation, no migration, no selection, large population size, random mating |
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Term
| p2 + 2pq + q2 = (p + q)2 = 1 |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| introduces new alleles into a population; the source of all new variation in a species |
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Definition
| movement of genes from one population to another. Over time, gene flow between two populations will make them more similar in allele frequencies. |
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Definition
| gene flow generally decreases with increased geographic distance |
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Term
| natural selection (and types) |
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Definition
filters variation by changing the likelihood of different alleles being passed on to the next generation
directional, balancing, disruptive/diversifying |
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Term
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Definition
| an organism's probability of survival and reproduction, measured by the relative contribution of a genotype to the next generation |
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Term
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Definition
some traits are determined by multiple genes and/or are determined by an interaction between genes and environment
Such traits often vary continuously between the most extreme and least extreme value, typically distributed in a bell-curve fashion. |
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Definition
| Random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next, overtime reducing genetic variation in a population |
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Term
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Definition
| when a small number of individuals start a new population, all the descendants derived from them, and may have 'weird' allele frequencies compared to the population of origin |
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Definition
| a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental effects; can cause 'weird' allele frequencies compared to the original population; a reduction in genetic variation |
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Term
| non-random mating (inbreeding, assortative) |
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Definition
patterns of mate choice within a population; does not change allele frequencies by itself
mating of biologically related individuals, resulting in consanguinity
mating on the basis of phenotype similarity or dissimilarity |
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Definition
| traits entirely controlled by one gene |
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Definition
controlled by multiple genes
controlled by one gene |
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Definition
| due to differences in molecules located on the surface of RBCs; differences are due to different alleles of the gene coding for each protein that attaches molecules to RBC |
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Definition
| The first person to correctly explain the process of blood circulation in our bodies and the role of the heart in the process. The father of modern physiology. |
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Term
| ABO - genetics, distribution, fitness (what affects frequencies) |
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Definition
| Gene located on human chromosome 9, with three major alleles, A, B, and O. A and B are codominant to each other with both dominant over O. The protein coded for by the ABO gene is responsible for adding a terminal sugar to the surface molecule on the RBC. Fitness: AB > AO > BO > OO > AA > BB |
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Term
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Definition
large molecules on the surface of cells that cause your immune system to produce antibodies against it.
protective agents of the immune system that neutralize foreign invaders (antigens) such as bacteria and viruses |
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Term
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Definition
| the disease organism possesses molecules on its surface that mimic those found on RBCs of particular blood types; the individual is then less able to recognize these as foreign substances |
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Term
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Definition
| some infectious agents enter the cell by attaching to particular surface molecules |
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Definition
| has molecules that mimic the A antigens, thus individuals who are of blood type A or AB have more difficulty recognizing the virus as a foreign body, and therefore are more easily infected and suffer more severe infections |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains the H antigen on its cell surface, which people of blood type O possess. People of blood type O are therefore more susceptible to the plague. |
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Term
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Definition
| caused by eating contaminated food; people with blood type O most susceptible because they have a receptor present in salvia that the virus may more easily attach itself to. |
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Term
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Definition
| The duffy blood group antigen serves not only as blood group antigen, but also as a receptor for malaria parasites. The null allele 'o' present almost 100% in African populations. Africans are all "duffy null" and are therefore resistant to malaria. |
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Term
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Definition
| Human leukocyte antigen. The locus of genes that encode for proteins on the surface of cells that are responsible for regulation of the immune system in humans. |
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Definition
Group of antibodies specific to particular foreign antigens.
GM is a region on IgG antibodies, which are essential to the immune response to bacterial and viral infections. GM allele frequencies vary geographically. |
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Term
| inborn errors of metabolism |
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Definition
| Usually caused by a mutation resulting in the absence or incorrect configuration of an enzyme that is necessary for one step of the pathway. |
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Term
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Definition
| a chain of reactions mediated by enzymes |
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Definition
| a rare inherited disorder that caused an amino acid (phenylalanine) to build up in your body; caused by a defect in the gene that helps create the enzyme needed to breakdown Phe |
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Definition
| autosomal recessive disorder caused by the absence of the enzyme tyrosinase in the phenylalanine pathway, which would convert DPA to dopaquinone, which is utilized in the production of melanins |
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Term
| lactose intolerance / malabsorption / lactase persistence |
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Definition
the impersistence of lactase, resulting in diarrhea, cramps, and/or other intestinal problems when milk is consumed, and leads to reduction of caloric utilization
inefficient digestion of lactose due to reduced expression or impaired activity of the enzyme lactase
the ability to digest lactose throughout life |
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Definition
| recessive disease causing secretions of thick mucus into respiratory and digestive systems, leading to early death. due to mutations in gene for CF, CFTR |
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Definition
| a lung infection in which the immune response is to encapsulate the infected area to isolate it from the rest of the lungs; however, often the next immune reaction involves a general inflammation of the lungs, which may actually increase chances of further infection |
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Definition
| caused by a bacterial infection that results in excessive chloride and fluid secretion, causing severe diarrhea and dehydration, leading to death eventually |
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Definition
| PTC some people can taste in low concentrations and others only at very high concentrations. PTC has a bitter taste that varies in intensity by individual. In nature, many bitter tasting compounds are poisonous. |
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Definition
| Table salt companies began fortifying their products with iodine because iodine deficiency was prevalent. You need iodine for your thyroid gland to produce its hormones. Lack of iodine causes goiter, which leads to reduced thyroid function. |
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Term
| hemoglobin (alpha and beta globin) |
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Definition
| Hemoglobin binds oxygen in the RBC and transports it from the lungs to the rest of the body. It is composed of four glob in molecules, two copies of alpha and two copies of beta glob in. |
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Term
| globin gene families (basics) |
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Definition
alpha globin: chromosome 16
beta globin: chromosome 11 |
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Term
| sickle cell anemia and malaria |
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Definition
| Sickle cell Hb is caused by a single amino acid change, created by a mutation of an A to a T in the sixth codon of beta glob in. The change in shape causes Hb molecules to become insoluble after they release oxygen, so they polymerize, deforming the cell and creating the sickle shape. |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme utilized in the reduction of oxidative productions such as hydrogen peroxide, which leads to oxidation of Hb and the destruction of RBC. heterozygotes are resistant to severe malarial infection possibly due to interference in the reproductive cycle of malaria. |
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Term
| sickle cell origins and presence in Americas |
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Definition
| Different African American populations possess different frequencies of Hb haplotypes. these reflect the different regions of Africa from which slaves were taken -- often dependent on the colonial power controlling the African and American populations |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the distribution of various genetic markers among different human populations; studies of genetic variation around the world have found markers that show significant differences in the frequencies across populations |
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Term
| African origins of humans |
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Definition
| genetic evidence based on mtDNA points to the existence of a common female ancestor who lived in Africa 130,000-270,000 years ago. Founder's effect when we left Africa. Greater mtDNA from Africa than from Eurasia |
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Term
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Definition
| extra nuclear, multiple copies per cell, maternally inherited; analysis of mtDNA shows that modern Native Americans belong to one of five mtDNA haplogroups. All five are found in Asia, supporting the hypothesis that Native Americans are descendants of Asians who migrated across the Bering Land Bridge |
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Definition
| paternally inherited, markers that are highly geographically specific. One mutation appears to have originated among the early migrants into the Americas, and its distribution supports a single migration |
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Definition
| a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features |
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Definition
| Ancient child's genome from Anzick site compared to complete genomes from a few other ancient individuals plus modern peoples. Genome most similar to ancient and modern Native Americans, suggesting a single migration into the Americas with an early split between the Canadian / Arctic groups and everyone else, with the child a member of the 'everyone else' group. |
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Term
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Definition
| earliest humans in the Americas, anatomical features appear to be distinct from those found among modern Native Americans. Suggests genetic continuity between the first people to arrive in the Americas and modern Native Americans |
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Term
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Definition
| Five castes (varnas) into which people are born, ranked one above the other. One's caste has historically been a main determinant of one's life choices. Most reproduction occurs WITHIN one's caste (endogamous). Genetic distance between the high- and low-status castes is greater than the distance between the high- and middle- and middle- and low-status castes. Females are much more likely to "transfer" castes than males. |
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Term
| Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings |
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Definition
| Molecular techniques can also be used to investigate kinship among living, or even deceased individuals. Did TJ father the son of Sally Hemmings? |
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Term
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Definition
| traits that are determined by the interaction of multiple genes and the environment; often a wide range of continous variation observed |
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Term
| height, weight, BMI, surface area, RSH/cormic index, facial structure |
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Definition
height: varies from 4 to 7 feet; males 5-10% taller than females (sexual dimorphism); does not vary regularly with climate or geography
weight: average weights correlated with mean annual temperature. lower temp = heavier weight
BMI: body mass / stature2; negatively correlated with surface area / volume ratio. Cold weather means low surface area / volume and high BMI
RSH: sitting height/ standing height x 100. measures how long legs are relative to torso. correlated with temp |
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Term
| Bergmann's Rule / Allen's Rule |
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Definition
Bergmann's: animals larger in colder areas of their ranges
Allen's: body proportions are correlated with temperature, appendages tend to be shorter in cold areas of species range |
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Term
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Definition
| body fat accumulating in the buttocks, allowing the body to maintain its heat dissipation abilities but also store fat reserves. In hot climates, it appears that body fat distributions are affected, but not dispersed throughout the body. |
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Term
| environmental effects on body form |
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Definition
More compact body forms in cold climates. More elongated body forms in warm climates.
hot climates = low BMI |
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Term
| head shape, cephalic index |
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Definition
a measure of cranial shape defined as the maximum width of the head divided by the total length of the head, times 100.
70-90 in humans. Appears to be adapted to climate. Consistent with Bergmann's. Rounder heads in colder climates. |
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Term
| nose adaptations, nasal index |
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Definition
Noses have many functions (heat loss, warming inspired cold air, moistening inspired dry air). Nasal index reflects the shape of the nasal opening in the skull. Equal to the width of the nasal opening divided by the height of the nasal opening, times100. 60-110.
Positive associations between nasal index and temp. |
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Term
| Eskimoan / Fuegian cranial morphology |
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Definition
| robust features, narrow and high nasal apertures, wide faces, broad cheek bones |
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Term
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Definition
| characterized by mid facial prognathism and very large noses. may be adaptation for ice age, important to warm and moisten air before it reached their lungs, having a large nasal cavity increased their ability to do this |
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Term
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Definition
| protecting underlying structures, regulation of body temperature, protection against infection, vitamin D synthesis, UV ray protection |
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Term
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Definition
dermis: inner layer, collagenous fibers surrounding blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and gland cells
epidermis: protective outer layer, thinner layer of basal cells which are constantly dividing and migrating toward the skin's surface, where they lose form and flatten and consist mostly of keratin |
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Term
| skin color -- melanocytes, melanosomes, melanin |
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Definition
melanocytes: specialized skin cell that produces the protective skin-darkening pigment melanin
melanosomes: an organelle that is the site of synthesis, storage, and transport of melanin
melanin: the most common light-absorbing pigment found in animals; gives human skin, hair, and eyes their color |
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Term
| reflectrometry / skin reflectance |
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Definition
| use devices that measures the amount of light reflected by the skin at different wavelengths, compared to a pure white standard; white have higher reflectance |
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Term
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Definition
| the substance in carrots, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes that colors them orange. if you eat enough of it, it may yield a yellowish pigment to the skin |
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Term
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Definition
| darker skin is found among peoples living close to the equator, while lighter skin is found among peoples living further north or south. |
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Term
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Definition
produced by the skin and varies by time of day, season, altitude, and latitudes
causes us to tan, too much burns the skin, and damages DNA in skin cells |
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Term
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Definition
| many nutrients break down (are lysed) when exposed to UV light, so dark skin is likely an adaptation to prevent nutrient photolysis |
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Term
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Definition
| severe sunburn can lead to infection and cause reduced fitness, so more likely that dark skin is protection against sunburn |
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Term
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Definition
| UV radiation needed to synthesize vitamin D, required by humans for proper bone growth. Lack of D can lead to poor bone development and maintenance and disease that deform the bones. Lighter skin at higher latitudes was favored because it allows enough UV light to penetrate the skin to produce enough vitamin D in a low UV environment and thus prevent vitamin D deficiency |
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Term
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Definition
| a disorder caused by a lack of vitamin D, leading to softening and weakening of the bones |
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Term
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Definition
| Caused by mutations reducing or eliminating the production of either alpha or beta glob in proteins, leading to screwed up hemoglobin. Can be due to a deletion of the glob in gene or an error in transcription or translation |
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