Term
| In trying to reach a design solution, what don't you have? |
|
Definition
| Unlimited time, knowledge, and resources. |
|
|
Term
| What is the process of optimization? (Hint think of Modelling). |
|
Definition
| Problem -> Model the Present System -> Model the Design Solution -> Implement the Design Solution |
|
|
Term
| Which moves more resources annually, human consumption or total mass of sediment transported into the sea each year? |
|
Definition
Humans: 60 x 10^9 tonnes per year
Sediment: 16 x 10^4 tonnes per year |
|
|
Term
| Define Sustainable Development: |
|
Definition
| development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. |
|
|
Term
A is proportional to M*E*S*I / P
What do these variables stand for? |
|
Definition
A=Level of affluence/Standard of Living
M=Materials
E=Energy
S=Sinks
P=Space/Population
I=Ingenuity |
|
|
Term
| What is the formula for the time until population doubles, for a growth rate x? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the exponential growth formula used to determine future populations? |
|
Definition
| Population=(Present Population)(e^(growth rate)(time)) |
|
|
Term
| What must the long term growth rate of the human population be for a sustainable future? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the Coasting effect in terms of populations and growth? |
|
Definition
| If we reach 0% population growth, it will still take many years for the population to level off or decrease |
|
|
Term
| What is the definition of abundant and scarce metals? |
|
Definition
Abundant: more than 0.1% of the earths crust
Scarce: less than 0.1% of the earths crust |
|
|
Term
| Define a Mineral Deposit: |
|
Definition
A local accumulation of a specific "mineral"
(A mineral can be anything) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A deposit of minerals that can be 'mined' profitably. |
|
|
Term
| Define Reserve, in terms of resources: |
|
Definition
economic amount discovered but not yet extracted
or
sum of all known ore deposits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
estimated total economic amount available
or
estimated sum of all possible 'ore' deposits |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 things that can be done to manage resource crisis? |
|
Definition
1. Conservation
2. Switch to a renewable resource
3. Better recycling
4. Reduce population or need
5. Ingenuity |
|
|
Term
| What are the 'Five Reservoirs?' (In terms of earth systems engineering). |
|
Definition
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Solid Earth
4. Life
5. Stars and Planets |
|
|
Term
| What is the cause of the 'sawtooth pattern' of the CO_2 levels in the atmosphere? |
|
Definition
Winter, trees dormant and not extracting CO_2
Summer, trees active
This effect is dominated by the northern hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| How do we measure the CO_2 levels from thousands/millions of years ago? |
|
Definition
| Analyze air bubbles trapped in ice. |
|
|
Term
| What natural earth cycle has historically had the most dramatic effect on CO_2 levels in the atmosphere? |
|
Definition
| The cycle of glacial and interglacial periods. |
|
|
Term
| What three things cause the glacial periods? |
|
Definition
Eccentricity: Variations in the earth's orbit (100,000 year cycle)
Obliquity: Earth's til varies (41,000 year cycle)
Precession: Earths 'wobble' (20,000 year cycle) |
|
|
Term
| What were the times of peak coal formation? |
|
Definition
300 million years ago, (first major land plants)
80 million years ago, (first flowering plants) |
|
|
Term
| What is the average density of the earth? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of Earth's magnetic field? |
|
Definition
| Blocks harmful radiation from reaching most places on earth |
|
|
Term
| What is synergy, in terms of hazards? |
|
Definition
| One or more hazards combined can be come many times more deadly. |
|
|
Term
| What three things determine the intensity of a hazard? |
|
Definition
Absolute amount: how far outside the damage threshold it is
Duration: How long outside damage threshold
Rate of Change: How quickly the intensity rises. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The probability of the Hazard occurring, multiplied by the severity of the consequences of the hazard. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 steps of Risk analysis? |
|
Definition
Understanding the Hazard
Determining the risk from the hazard to regions of interest
Determine ways to reduce severity or probability
Do a cost/benefit analysis
Implement mitigation techniques |
|
|
Term
| What is the Elastic rebound theory in terms of earthquakes? |
|
Definition
| The rigid portion of the earth can store elastic potential energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a break or crack in the rock where there has been appropriate displacement. |
|
|
Term
| Earthquakes happen when either: |
|
Definition
a fault forms
or there is movement on a pre-existing fault |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the point source of energy release from a fault |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the point on the earths surface that is closest to the focus |
|
|
Term
| Define Surface waves, and the two types of surface wave. |
|
Definition
Formed when seismic body waves reach the earths surface
Rayleigh: Circular wave motion
Love: horizontal/side-to-side motion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Energy that radiates from an earthquakes focus |
|
|
Term
| Velocity of P and S waves is proportional to: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the compressibility modulus? |
|
Definition
| stress needed to compress a material |
|
|
Term
| What is the shear modulus? |
|
Definition
| stress needed to change the shape of a material |
|
|
Term
| S-waves cannot pass through: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| At what depths do earthquakes occur? |
|
Definition
| all occur at less than 700km in depth |
|
|
Term
| Material Amplification Effect: |
|
Definition
Soft Soils shake more than Stiff Soils shake more than Rock
Low Velocity Medium High Velocity
Large amplitude Medium Low amplitude |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 causes of Tsunamis: |
|
Definition
Seafloor Earthquakes
'underwater' landslides
Collapse of the flank of a volcano into the sea
Submarine volcanic explosion
Meteorite impact |
|
|
Term
| How does dam construction contribute to seismic risk? |
|
Definition
| Loading of the earth with excess water changes the 'stress regime' causing quakes |
|
|
Term
| Which travels faster, P-waves or S-waves? |
|
Definition
P waves
P=Primary
S=Secondary |
|
|
Term
How do we assess the seismic risk in an area?
|
|
Definition
Locate and determine the nature of the faults in the area
Decide if they are Inactive, Active or Potentially Active
Study history of earthquakes in the area
Determine Recurrance Interval
Set up Seismometers
|
|
|
Term
| How do we manage the risk of Earthquakes? (4 things) |
|
Definition
Land use planning and zoning
Building Codes
Resistant Building Designs
Set up warning systems and emergency response plans
|
|
|
Term
How do we manage the risk of Tsunamis?
|
|
Definition
Early warning systems
Natural shorelines, (vegetation takes most of force)
Limit popolations along shorelines
Provide Tsunami Education |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Place in seismic record where earthquakes have not occured for a period of time greater than the recurrance interval |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Formation of microcracks in rocks preceding an earthquake |
|
|
Term
Dilitancy can lead to: (4 things)
|
|
Definition
Ground Bulges
Foreshocks
Increase in Radon Levels in Wells
Drop in water levels in wells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Choose the simplest solution that fits the data |
|
|
Term
| How do waves behave when refracting between different mediums? |
|
Definition
Dense -> Light: Away from normal
Light -> Dense: Towards normal |
|
|
Term
| Why do some seismic waves arrive sooner than expected? |
|
Definition
| They spend more time at depth at a higher speed. |
|
|
Term
| What does the S-wave shadow zone indicate? |
|
Definition
| The centre of the earth is liquid. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Mohorivic Discontinuity? |
|
Definition
| The MOHO layer, the boudary between the crust and the mantle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The outer rigid part of the earth, 100km thick including the crust and the upper part of the mantle |
|
|
Term
| Define the Asthenosphere: |
|
Definition
| From the lithosphere down to approximately 500 feet, plastic material |
|
|
Term
| What does the prescence of Earths magenetic field tell us about the nature of Earths core? |
|
Definition
| Must be made of liquid iron, as it acts as a self esciting dynamo. |
|
|
Term
What are the two types of meteorites?
|
|
Definition
Chondrites (Iron meteorites): Mainly elemental Iron
Achondrites (Stony meteorites): less iron
|
|
|
Term
| What are the two defining characteristics of chondrite meteorites? |
|
Definition
Spherical Chondrules, (Olivine and Proxene)
Bits of elemental iron |
|
|
Term
| What do chondritic meteorites tell us about the history of the earth? |
|
Definition
| Originally the earth was chondritic, but over time it experiences differentiation. |
|
|
Term
What are the top three elements in the earth by weight?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are earths current sources of heat energy? |
|
Definition
Heat left over from the beginning of earths formation
Continual gravitational sinking of iron
Decay of radioactive elements |
|
|
Term
How does earth get rid of its heat?
|
|
Definition
| A combination of conduction and Convection |
|
|
Term
| In plate techtonics, the ______ (rigid) slides around on the _________ (plastic). |
|
Definition
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of a contructive plate margin? |
|
Definition
Upwelling part of the convection cycle
new lithospheric plates are produced and move apart
new ocean crust produced. |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of destructive plate margins? |
|
Definition
Sinking in the convection cycle
Lithospheric plates are destroyed
Ocean lithospheric plates subduct
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The downslope movement of solid Earth materials under the influence of gravity |
|
|
Term
What determines whether landlides occur:
|
|
Definition
Slope Steepness
Nature of the Material
Triggering Effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| permanently frozen ground |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Melting of the permafrost in the active soil layer causes landlsides |
|
|
Term
| Define Safety Factor and its basic formula in terms of lanslides: |
|
Definition
A measure of the stability of a slope
(Resisting Force)/(Driving Force) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amount of empty space between soil particles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The ability of water to penetrate a soil |
|
|
Term
| What factors affect slope stability in rock? (4 things) |
|
Definition
Sedimentary bedding planes
Metamorphic bedding planes
Faults
Joints |
|
|
Term
| How do joints form in rocks? |
|
Definition
Release of pressure when buried rocks are brought to earths surface
Squeezing of rocks
Shrinking of igneous rocks as the cool at earths surface |
|
|
Term
| How do we mitigate the effects of mass wasting? |
|
Definition
Land Use planning
Stabalize the Slope
Slope Monitoring |
|
|
Term
| How can we stabalize slopes with risks of landslides? |
|
Definition
Drainage
Rock Bolts
Mesh Screens
Retainign Walls
Cut Benches
Vegetation |
|
|
Term
| How can we monitor slopes with risk of landslides? |
|
Definition
Tiltmeter
GPS
Geophones
Study Water Content |
|
|
Term
| What two things determine the behaviour of rocks and aggregates? |
|
Definition
The properties of the minerals that they consist of
The bulk propertis of the rock |
|
|
Term
| A mineral is defined by two things: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the four bond types? |
|
Definition
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
Intermolecular |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minerals with the same chemical composition but different structure |
|
|
Term
| What are the five silicate structures? |
|
Definition
Single (Isolated) Tetrahedral
Single Chain
Double Chain
Sheet Structure
Framework |
|
|
Term
What are the characteristics of Sand Soil?
|
|
Definition
mostly Quartz
strong framework structure
spherical particles provide good drainage |
|
|
Term
| What are the characteristics of Clay soil |
|
Definition
mostly clay
tiny particles with surface charges packed tightly together
weak sheet structure
poor drainage
shrink and swell |
|
|
Term
| Where are abundant metals found? |
|
Definition
Essential components of silicate and non-silicate minerals
|
|
|
Term
| Where are scarce minerals found? |
|
Definition
| mainly atomic substitutes in silicate minerals |
|
|
Term
| What three things control grain size in igneous rocks? |
|
Definition
Rate of cooling of magma
Viscosity of Magma
Percentage of Volatiles |
|
|
Term
| What affects the melting temperature of a mineral? |
|
Definition
Pressure
Nature of neighbouring minerals |
|
|
Term
| When partial melting occurs, the rock that is released from the original rock is more ______ than the other components. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the layers, from top to bottom, of an igneous intrusion? |
|
Definition
Felsic
Intermediate
Mafic
Ultramafic |
|
|
Term
| What are the two methods of Magmatic Differentiation? |
|
Definition
Squeezing out the liquid, leaving the solids behind
Hardened crystals sink to the bottom |
|
|
Term
| Where do deposits of chromite occur? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where do deposits of copper occur? |
|
Definition
| In granite porphyry intrusions |
|
|
Term
| What are the relative viscosities of felsic and mafic magma? |
|
Definition
Mafic -> Low viscosity, low water content
Felsic -> Hight viscosity, high water content |
|
|
Term
| What is the two forms magma can reach the surface as? |
|
Definition
| Lava, or pyroclastic material |
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways magma can reach the surface of the earth? |
|
Definition
Fractures (Fissures)
Volcanic Cones |
|
|
Term
| What are the dangers of fissure eruptions? |
|
Definition
Release of CO_2 and SO_2 gas
If extremely large can cause mass extinctions |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of Volcanic Cones? |
|
Definition
Cinder Cone
Strato Volcano
Shield Volcano |
|
|
Term
| What is the most dangerous type of volcano? Why is it so dangerous? |
|
Definition
| Stratovolcanoes. This is because the material it releases is felsic or intermediate and has a high water content. This water expands and explodes out the top of the volcano. |
|
|
Term
| What are the dangers of Air-fall ash, and Ash clouds? |
|
Definition
can cause major economic damage and bury cities
can block suns rays and lower global temperatures |
|
|
Term
| What are the dangers of ash-flow? |
|
Definition
Nuee Ardente: Eruption pillar collapses and travels down the side of the mountain
Pyroclastic surge: travel more than 300km/h for up to 10km |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ash on flanks of volcanoes mix with melted snow and create a mudflow |
|
|
Term
| What are the methods of mechanical weathering? |
|
Definition
Joint formation
Frost Wedging
Biological Activity
Abrasion |
|
|
Term
| What are the methods of chemical weathering? |
|
Definition
Action of Water (Hydrolysis)
Water can also be acidified |
|
|
Term
| What is useful about laterite soil, and where does it form? |
|
Definition
Main source of bauxite (aluminum) and iron oxides
Forms in humid tropical climate |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of sedimentary rocks? |
|
Definition
Clastic: particles
Chemical: Ions in solution |
|
|
Term
| What does particle size in sedimentary rocks tell us about the environment of deposition? |
|
Definition
Large size, high energy.
Small size, low energy. |
|
|
Term
| What does the degree of sorting in sedimentary rocks tell us about the environment of deposition? |
|
Definition
Well sorted, long period of deposition
Poorly sorted, short period of deposition |
|
|
Term
| What were the two main types of sedimentary rocks discussed? |
|
Definition
Limestone: Deposits of shell fragments
Chert: shells of microfossils |
|
|
Term
| What are some Evaporites? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where is banded iron formation most commonly found? |
|
Definition
| alternating with layers of chert |
|
|
