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Sought to apply the rules of reason and common sense to nearly all major institutions and social practices of the day
Example: Voltaire |
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Most influential of the philosophes; offended the French authorities with his writings; went to England to observe literary climate;
Example: wrote Candide and Letters on the English |
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| Praised virtues of the English and criticized abuses of the French society |
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| Elements of the Philosophy of Newton |
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| Attacked war, religious persecution, and unwarranted optimism; believed human society should be improved |
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| Chief factor that fostered ideas of the Enlightenment and call for reform in Europe; books and newspapers achieved their status |
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| Humans enter as a blank slate; Locke; personality is the product of experience; human nature is changeable |
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| English sayist and critic author; published books with collections of essays from journals |
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| Started in 1711 by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele; fostered the value of polite conversation in coffeehouses |
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| Alexander Pope and Voltaire |
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| Created a status for authors |
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| Expanding literate public and influence of printed materials social force |
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| Greatest moment of the Enlightenment and realm of print culture; created by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert with the first volume in 1751 |
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| Enlightened historian; head of Scottish Kirk |
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| Life of religion and of reason combined; empirical, tolerant, and rational; encouraged living |
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| Christianity Not Mysterious |
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| John Toland; indicated general tenor of religious outlook; deist; promoted religion as rational and natural; differed from Newton and Locke |
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| Wrote a poem; deists creed; belief in existence of God in nature and life after death where rewards and punishments of virtue are |
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| Huguenot who murdered his son to prevent him from converting to Roman Catholicism |
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| Wrote Nathan the Wise, a plea for toleration for all religions |
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| Voltaire; pointed out inconsistencies in biblical narratives |
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Scottish philosopher;
Inquiry into Human Nature (1748): Argued that no evidence supported belief in divine miracles in Christianity |
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| The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776): English historian; explained rise in Christianity through natural causes |
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| Baronn d'Holbach and Julien Offray de La Mettrie |
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| Embraced positions very near to atheism and materialism; minority |
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German philosopher;
Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793) |
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| Netherlands author and son of Jewish merchant; influenced by new science; human reason; viewed as a martyr for rationality against superstition; non-traditional |
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| Spinoza; Most famous of works; closely identified God and nature that condemned him; pantheistic |
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| Theologico-Political Treatise (1670) |
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| Spinoza; Anticipated religious criticism of Enlightenment and described the origins through naturalistic terms; Hebrew Bible= divine legislation |
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| German Jewish author; leading Jewish philosopher of 18th century; "Jewish Socrates," argued for loyalty to Judaism with rational and Enlightenment values |
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| Moses argued for the advancing religious toleration and distinction in Jewish societies; religious diversity within a nation= good; governments should be religiously neutral |
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| Pascal; portrayed Islam as a false religion and Muhammad as an impostor; Islam= promiscuous religion; Islam was rival to Christianity |
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| Bibliotheque Oriental (Oriental Library) |
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| Bartjelemy d'Herbelot; hostile to Islamic culture |
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| Tolerant deist; Islam was derived from Christianity; "Mohametan" Christian |
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| Blamed Christianity for contributing to the fall of the HRE |
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| The Persian Letters (1721) |
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| Written by Montesquieu; two Muslim Persians who used Islamic culture as a foil to criticize European society |
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| Lady Mary Wortley Montagu |
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| Lived in Constantinople with British ambassador to Turkey; wrote about experiences in Turkish Embassy Letters which praised Ottoman society and urged English to vaccinate against smallpox; Turkish women were free |
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| Islamic religious establishment; God's revelation to Muhammad meant Islam had passed Christianity as a religion |
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| On Crimes and Punishments |
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| Beccaria; applied critical analysis to making punishments effective; wanted the laws of monarchs to conform with rational laws of nature; attacked torture and said that the purpose of laws was to secure the greatest good of humans |
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| Economic reformers in France; spokesmen Francois Quesnay and Pierre Dupont de Nemours; primary role of government was to protect property and permit its owners to use it freely |
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| Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) |
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| Adam Smith; most important work of Enlightenment; resources in nature boundless |
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| Believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system; urged that mercantile system of Europe be abolished; wanted individuals to pursue their own selfish interests |
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| Economic thought and policy which favored a limited role for the government in economic life |
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| Smith; Complex book; embraced an important theory of human social and economic development |
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| Human societies can be classified as hunting and gathering with no settled life; pastoral societies were groups of agriculture nomads with private property |
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| Charles Louis de Socondat, baron de Montesquieu |
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| Lawyer; noble of the robe; member of parliament; belonged to Academy of Science |
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| Montesquieu's Model of Government |
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| Division of power; authority separated among branches; based off Britain; executive power in king, legislative power in parliament and judicial power in the court; two branches could check and balance each other |
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| Viewed of the exercise and reform of political power; strange and isolated genius; antipathy toward society and did not believe humans were moral |
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| Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750) |
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| Rosseau; Contended that the process of civilization and Enlightenment had corrupted human nature |
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| Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755) |
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| Rosseau; blamed evil in the world on uneven power |
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| The Social Contract (1762) |
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| Rosseau; Abstract; outlined the kind of political structure to overcome the evils of society |
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| Marie-Therese Geofrin, Julie de Lespinasse, and Claudine de Tencin |
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| Women; gave philosophes insight to useful social and political contracts to share ideas; fashionable salon for philosophes |
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| Mistress of Louis XV; overcame censoring in Encyclopedia; helped block works attacking philosophes; promoted Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws |
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| A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) |
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| Mary Wollstonecraft; brought Rosseau before the judgement of the rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge; opposed certain policies of French Rev; accused Rosseau of narrowing women's vision and limit experience; among philosophes; women should not be slaves to men |
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| History of the Russian Empire under Peter the Great |
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| Declared "Peter was born and Russia was formed"; Voltaire; sought to redirect power toward rationalization of economic political structures in government |
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| Several European rulers embraced reforms set forth by philosophes; government should strengthen central absolutist admin (ex. Fredrick II) |
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| Consciously sought to create image of being enlightened; read and cited works with Voltaire; understood fragility of Romanov dynasty |
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| Sought the recovery of Prussia and succeeded in keeping Silesia seized from Austria in 1740 and promoted manufacturing |
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| War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) |
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| Maria Theresa; took steps to build power of crown outside Hungary; bureaucracy and efficient in taxation in Austria and Bohemia; educational institutions into crown; centralization of authority |
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| Labor; increased by Austrian succession |
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| Ecclesiastical policies of Joseph II that prefigured the French Revolution |
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| Issued by Catherine; guaranteed nobles many rights and privileges; empress had to favor nobles; virtue |
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| Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji |
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| Gave Russia direct outlet on the Black Sea, free navigation rights in the waters, and fee access through the Cosporous |
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| First Partition of Poland |
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| Division of Polish territory; prevented conflict among powers and saved appearances; three powers agreed Russia would abandon the conquered Danubian provinces and Russia received a large portion of Polish territory; demonstrated that any nation without a strong bureaucracy, monarchy, and army could not compete |
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