Term
| What is the key law established and proved in the Newtonian Synthesis? |
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Definition
| Law of Universal Gravitation |
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Term
| Who was Moses Mendelssohn? |
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Definition
| Jew who urged that Jews be given freedom and civil rights |
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Term
| Who was Catherine the Great's husband? How was their relationship? |
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Definition
| Peter III- she didn't care about him and only wanted power |
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Term
| How did Catherine the Great eventually take power? |
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Definition
| Peter became unpopular because he withdrew troops from Seven-Years' War, alienating the army. Catherine had an affair with Grigory Orlov, plotted a conspiracy against him and murdered him. |
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Term
| What were Maria Theresa of Austria's three goals? |
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Definition
1) Limit Papal influence
2) New taxes, strengthen bureaucracy
3) Weaken serfdom |
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Term
| What was the religious response to the Copernican Hypothesis? |
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Definition
-Luther and Calvin harshly criticize it
-Milder Catholic criticism- 1616 official declaration falsifying C.H. |
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Term
| Aside from the works of Copernicus, what other events of the late 16th century created doubt about traditional astronomical ideas? |
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Definition
| A star explodes in 1572, a new comet appears in 1577: these contradict the idea that the universe is unchanging and perfect |
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Term
| What was Galileo's greatest discovery? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who was Johnanes Kepler and what did he do? |
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Definition
German astronomer- late 16th c/early 17th c.
Student of Brahe who used Brahe's data to formulate 3 laws of planetary motion
-Elliptical orbits
-Non-uniform speed
-Time to complete orbit related to distance from sun |
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Term
| Parallels exist between racial classification and ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| Lending libraries, coffeehouses, book clubs, Masonic lodges, and journals were all part of the creation of a new _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| The most successful "Enlightened Absolutists" ruled what kinds of states? |
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Definition
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Term
| The scientific revolution marks the beginning of what era in human history? |
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Definition
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Term
| In the early 1500's, "natural philosophy" was based on whose ideas? |
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Definition
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Term
| What did medieval "philosophers" do to the works of Aristotle? |
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Definition
| Revised them to make them fit with Christian beliefs |
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Term
| What does Frederick the Great do in 1740 that initiates the War of Austrian Succession? |
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Definition
| Invades Silesia- breaking the Prussian promise to uphold the Pragmatic Sanction |
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Term
| What are the consequences of the War of Austrian Succession? (3) |
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Definition
1) Prussia gets Silesia. Population doubles
2) Austrian decline starts
3) Beginning of Prussia/Austria rivalry |
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Term
| What are the sides in the Seven-Years' War? What are the goals of each side? |
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Definition
Prussia- maintain status as a great power by fighting defensively
Austria/France/Russia- cut up Prussia and divide its territory |
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Term
| The Seven Years' War is sometimes also known as the ________ Revolution. |
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Definition
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Term
| How does the Seven-Years' War end? |
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Definition
| Peter III of Russia calls off the war because he admires Frederick |
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Term
| What are some of Frederick the Great's Enlightened policies? (5) |
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Definition
1) Religious tolerance
2) Education reforms
3) Legal system improved- no torture
4) Reconstruction of agriculture, industry
5) Practical results justify rule, not divine-right |
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Term
| Frederick the Great also imposed some policies that reflected the backwardness of the past. These include...? (2) |
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Definition
1) Accepted serfdom (because of Junkers)
2) Oppressed Jews |
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Term
| What work published in 1632 written by Galileo lampooned traditional Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views and defended Copernican views? |
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Definition
| Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World |
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Term
| In what year was Galileo tried and tortured by the Catholic Church? |
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Definition
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Term
| Newton believed in alchemy. What is alchemy? |
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Definition
| The belief that base metals can be changed to gold and silver |
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Term
| What territory did Catherine gain for Russia? |
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Definition
Drives the last of the Mongolians out of the Caucasus region
Defeats the Turks
-Turks let off easy, instead she takes a huge partition of Poland |
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Term
| What are Rousseau's opinions on gender roles? |
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Definition
| Rigid gender division- female power goes against "natural law" |
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Term
| In what work does Rousseau argue that education should encourage instincts and create a balance between heart and mind? |
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Definition
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Term
| What work by whom describes the concepts of general will and popular sovereignty? |
|
Definition
| Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762) |
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Term
| Which Prussian philosopher tried to reconcile absolute monarchy with a critical public sphere? |
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Definition
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Term
| What 1735 work argues that a God-given hierarchy extends to race? |
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Definition
| Carl von Linne, The System of Nature |
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Term
| What 1789 work argues that the white race evolved into other inferior races because of climate? |
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Definition
| de Buffon, A Natural History |
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Term
| Hume's Of Natural Characters (1748) and Kant's On the Different Races of Man (1775) both support what concept? |
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Definition
| Natural inferiority of other races to a dominant white race |
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Term
| Who are James Beattie and Johann von Herder? |
|
Definition
| Opposition to Kant's and Hume's racial ideas |
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Term
| What is considered Descartes's greatest achievement? |
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Definition
| Doubt and deductive reason, Cartesian dualism (cogito ergo sum) |
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Term
| What were the more "pro-science" countries after 1630? Why? |
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Definition
| Netherlands, Denmark, England- Protestant countries without a strong religious authority |
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Term
| In what country were only "neutral" scientific questions allowed? |
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Definition
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Term
| What were negative consequences of the Scientific Revolution on women? (2) |
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Definition
1) Supported traditional values (skull size)
2) Exclusion of women from scientific communities |
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Term
| What were positive consequences of the Scientific Revolution on women? (3) |
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Definition
1) universities/academies in Italy
2) Makers of models, scientific illustration jobs
3) Informal scientific/philosophical communities (salons) |
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Term
| Who were Margaret Cavendish, Anne Conway, and Mary Astell? |
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Definition
| Women who contributed to philosophy by debating Cartesian dualism |
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Term
| Nature and the Americas, during the Scientific Revolution, were viewed as representations of _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| How did the Scientific Revolution impact economic life and living standards? |
|
Definition
| Very little impact because it was an intellectual movement only |
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Term
| What was the biggest factor in the creation of a new, "Enlightened" worldview? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Who was Bernard de Fontenelle and what did he do? |
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Definition
| French writer- tried to make science accessible to a public audience |
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Term
| What was the "great chain of being?" |
|
Definition
| idea that humans were linked to God in a chain that stretched from heaven down to Earth |
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Term
| What were Aristotelian views on physics? |
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Definition
-4 natural elements, 5th perfect essence (quintessence)
-Uniform force moves object at constant speed. When force stops, object stops. |
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Term
| Why were Aristotle's views believed for so long? |
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Definition
-Common sense and understandable
-Fit with Christian doctrine and great chain of being |
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Term
| What were components of the Ptolemaic universe? (4) |
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Definition
1) Earth = center of universe
2) Perfectly circular orbits
3) Planets embedded in "crystal spheres"
4) Place for heavens |
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Term
| What was Fontenelle's work published in 1686 that included witty dialogue and focused on the idea that knowledge is progress? |
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Definition
| Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds |
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Term
| Early "natural philosophers" considered their field a branch of _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| What were the three central concepts of the Enlightenment? |
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Definition
1) Apply natural science to life, use secular reason
2) Use reason in social science
3) Progress is always possible |
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Term
| How did the Scientific Revolution impact society? (4) |
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Definition
1) Competitive, state-linked scientific communities
2) State-sponsored science academies (London, Paris, Berlin)
3) Modern Scientific Method- shift from tradition or texts to reason
4) Impact on women |
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Term
| Why did the Enlightenment reach its highest development in France? (3) |
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Definition
1) French = international language, wealthiest most populous country, high culture
2) Orthodoxy strong but not too strong
3) Philosophes desire to reach public |
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Term
| Who was Francis Bacon and what did he do? |
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Definition
English politician/writer
-formalized experimental method
-including empiricism- concepts used by Brahe/Galileo |
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Term
| Who was Tycho Brahe and what did he do? |
|
Definition
Danish astronomer- late 16th c.
-built observatory
-collected a great mass of data
-mix of Ptolemaic/Copernican beliefs |
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Term
| In which work does Voltaire argue for "enlightened" monarchy because social and economic equality is impossible? |
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Definition
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Term
| What were the causes of the Scientific Revolution? (5) |
|
Definition
1) Development of universities- separation of philosophy from theology and scientific communities at universities
2) Renaissance- revival of classical work and patronage
3) Navigation and need for new technology
4) Scientific methodology- Bacon, Descartes
5) Role of religion- questionable impact |
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Term
| What are Galileo's major discoveries? (5) |
|
Definition
1) Experimental method
2) Gravity
3) Inertia
4) New telescope
5) Discovery of 4 moons of Jupiter |
|
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Term
| what was the "Republic of Letters" |
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Definition
| Imaginary transnational realm with members of Enlightened public, envisioned by the philosophes |
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Term
| Montesquieu criticizes European customs and informal female power in which 1721 work? |
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Definition
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Term
| What work argues that government is shaped by history, geography, and customs? |
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Definition
| Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws |
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|
Term
| What most influenced Voltaire's writing? |
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Definition
| Turbulent early career and struggle with the law |
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Term
| Montesquieu and Voltaire support which European country's institutions and government? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are Madame du Chatelet's greatest accomplishments? |
|
Definition
1) Scientific articles
2) Translation of Principia with commentary
3) Demanded women's education |
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Term
| What were Voltaire's religious views? |
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Definition
Radical religious critic. He challenged the Church and Christian theology, and was against organized religion ("crush the infamous thing").
He was a deist. |
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Term
| The German and English Enlightenments tried to _____. |
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Definition
| integrate new science with traditional religious faith and practices |
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Term
| What freed Scotland from political crisis in 1707? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What city was the center of the Scottish Enlightenment? |
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Definition
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Term
| What were the consequences of the Pugachev Revolt (1773)? (3) |
|
Definition
1) End to Catherine's reforms
2) More power to nobles
3) Led to serfdom's most oppressive phase |
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Term
| The famous Newtonian Synthesis was published in what book? (year?) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| How did the Enlightenment impact commoners? (2) To what extent? |
|
Definition
Minimal impact, but
1) Cheap books, cheaper pamphlets
2) Public readings |
|
|
Term
| Who was Jacques-Louis Menetra? |
|
Definition
| Parisian glass-worker, befriended Rousseau |
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Term
| Rousseau supported individual freedom, but denounced ______ as destroying of the individual. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Rousseau is linked to which intellectual movement? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What were Catherine the Great's three goals? |
|
Definition
1) Westernization of Russia
2) Domestic Reform (religious toleration, some restrictions on torture, education reform, improved local government)
3) Territorial expansion |
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|
Term
| What were David Hume's epistemological views? |
|
Definition
| The mind is a "bundle of impressions"- everything is based on experience. Reason has limits. |
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Term
| Most of the educated elite embraced Enlightenment ideas by what major event? |
|
Definition
| American Revolution (1775) |
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Term
| What were the changes in how people read books during the Enlightenment? (3) |
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Definition
1) Type
-arts, sciences increase, religion decrease
2) Number- increases
3) Reading becomes individual, not communal |
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|
Term
| Who were the philosophes? |
|
Definition
| first intellectual group to declare an "Age of Enlightenment," mostly French philosophers |
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Term
| The new science of "natural philosophy" was a union of what two new intellectual developments? |
|
Definition
1) Experimental observations
2) Complex, sophisticated mathematics |
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Term
| Modern historians believe absolutism was "Enlightened" during the 18th century because __________. |
|
Definition
| it incorporated innovation into state-building |
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|
Term
| What were the characteristics of rococo art? |
|
Definition
-Secular, upper-class, pleasure, joy
-curves, pastels, natural objects |
|
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Term
|
Definition
"Godmother of the Encyclopedia"
-owned a famous salon |
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Term
| Montesquieu's most famous political work, published in 1748, argues for separation of powers. What is this work? |
|
Definition
| Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws |
|
|
Term
| Where could the wealthy middle class could participate in conversation, discussion, and debate? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Why was it necessary for absolutists to prioritize strength over reform? |
|
Definition
-High stakes and brutal political struggle
-Need to be able to defend (Poland gets liquidated) |
|
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Term
| Compare the new evaluation of Enlightened absolutism with the old evaluation. |
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Definition
OLD VIEW
Frederick, Catherine, Joseph are outstanding examples of absolutism because they spread culture and advocated change from above.
NEW VIEW
Humanitarian objective took second place to strengthening the state, because they only made modest improvements and were often blocked by nobility. New historians also question the sincerity of their reform efforts. |
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Term
| What was the greatest and most representative work of the Enlightenment? |
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Definition
| Encyclopedia- compilation of various authors' articles, edited by Diderot and D'Alembert. |
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|
Term
| Who said "I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it?" |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What were the consequences of Joseph's reforms? (2) |
|
Definition
1) Edicts cancelled by Leopold II just to reestablish order
2) Empire in turmoil |
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|
Term
| What were reasons for crisis in European thought during the Enlightenment? |
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Definition
1) Demolition of Aristotelian/medieval thought, anti-religious scientific writers like Fontenelle
2) Skepticism of religious truth
3) Travel literature, exposure to different cultures
4) Locke, Essay on Human Understanding (1690)- tabula rasa and experience=knowledge |
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Term
| What work by Fontenelle explores the theme of "rational, progressive scientists" versus "prejudiced, reactionary priests?" |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Writers of Fontenelle's generation were instrumental in bringing what two studies into conflict with each other? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In what work did Copernicus formally publish his hypothesis? (year?) |
|
Definition
| On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) |
|
|
Term
| What were Joseph II's radical reforms? (2) |
|
Definition
1) Religious toleration for all, even Jews
2) Abolished serfdom, cash payments instead of labor obligations |
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