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| a cultural anthropology of the human past involving the analysis of material remains left behind by earlier societies |
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| seeks to understand human biological evolution through the fossil record |
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| seeks to understand human variation through the written record and material record |
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| looks at human beings as biological organisms and trues to discover what characteristics make them different from other organisms and what characteristics they share |
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| seeks to understand our biological evolution through the fossil record |
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| seeks to understand contemporary variability by looking at nutrition, disease, etc. |
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| seeks to understand human biological eand social evolution by looking at primates |
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| shows how variation the beliefs and behaviors of members of different human groups is shaped by sets of learned behaviors and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society-that is, by culture |
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| concerned with the study of human languages |
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| specialists who use information gathered from the other anthropological specialties to solve practical cross-cultural problems |
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| the specialty of anthropology that concerns itself with human health the factors that contribute to disease or illness and the ways that human population deal with disease or illness |
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| the sub-discipline if anthropology concerned with mapping and explaining physical differences among modern human groups |
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| a characteristic of the anthropological perspective that describes at the highest and most inclusive level, how anthropology tries to integrate all that is known beings and their activities |
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| sets of learned behavior and ideas that human beings acquire as members of society. Human beings use culture to adapt to and to transform the world in which they live |
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| organisms whose defining features are co-determined by biological and cultural factors |
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| social groupings that allegedly reflect biological differences |
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| the system of arbitrary vocal symbols used to encode one's experience of the world and of others |
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| the understanding of distinct cultures lifestyles within the context of each culture; the behavior of a cultural group are evaluated in the context of that specific culture, from an impartial perspective, rather then according to the standards of some other culture |
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| the belief, derived from Plato, in fixed ideas or "forms", that exist perfect and unchanging in eternity. Actual objects in the temporal world, such as cows or horses, are seen as imperfect material realizations of the ideal form that defines their kind |
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| a comprehensive framework for interpreting the world based on Aristotle on principles and elaborated during the Middle Ages, in which every kind of living organism was linked to every different from the kinds immediately above it and below it on the chain by the least possible degree |
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| a theory by George Cuvier; the notion that natural disasters, such as floods, are responsible for the extinction of species, which are then replaced by new species |
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| a theory by Charles Lyell; the notion that an understanding of current processes can be used to reconstruct the past history of the earth, based on the assumption that the same gradual processes of erosion and uplift that change the earth's surface today had also been at work in the past |
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| Transformational Evolution |
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Definition
| a theory by Lamarck; it assumes essentialist species and a uniform environment. Each individual memeber of a species transforms itself to meet the challenges of a changed environment through the laws of use and disuse and the inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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| A theory by Charles Darwin; a two step mechanistic explanation of how descent with modification takes place: 1) every generation variant individuals are generated within a species due to genetic mutation, and 2) those variant individuals but suited to the current environment survive and produce more offspring than other variants |
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| a theory by Charles Darwin; assumes that variant members of a species respond differently to environmental challenges. Those variants that are more successful survive and reproduce more offspring who inherit the traits that made their parents fit |
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| the observable hereditary characteristics |
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| the hereditary unit that codes for a particular trait, underlying gene responsible (genotype + phenotype = phenotype) |
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| an individual gets one particle of inheritance for each trait from each parent |
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| the particle inherited from each parent, an individual inherits two alleles for each gene |
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| a local group o f interbreeding individuals in which any two individuals potentially mate |
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| the trait expressed in the phenotype even when the organism is carrying only one copy of the underlying gene responsible (XX, Xx) |
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| the trait expressed only when the organism carries two copies of the underlying gene responsible (xx) |
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| the same allele is received from each parent (XX, xx) |
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| different alleles are received from each parent (Xx) |
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| Modern Evolutionary Synthesis Theory |
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Definition
random mutations produce genes that may be adaptive, as these genes increase the fitness of a population, they become more prevalent and lead to a population evolving
1. as a result of mutation creating new alleles and segregation and independent assortment shuffling alleles into new combinations, individuals within a population are variable for nearly all traits
2 individuals pass their genes on to their offspring intact and independently of other genes
3 in most generations more offspring are produced than can survive
4. the individuals that survive and go on to reproduce or who reproduce the most, are those with the alleles and allelic combinations that best adapt them to their environment |
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| the shaping of any useful feature of an organism, regardless of its origin |
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| the shaping of useful features of an organism bu natural selection |
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| the shaping of useful feature by natural selection for one purpose and later reshaping by different selection pressures for a new purpose |
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| responsible for evolutionary changes in organisms |
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| ultimate and constant source of new variation |
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| Gene Flow (Merge Populations) |
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| altering the given population experiences through a sudden expansion due to the in-migration of outsiders from another population of the species |
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| population that is unaffected by mutation or gene flow; random changes in gene frequencies from one generation to the next; has a big impact on populations that are suddenly reduced by disease or disaster. Ex: Founder Effect |
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| evolution that occurs over short timescales for a given species within a few generations |
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| evolution that occurs over long time periods and results in new species |
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| the ability if an organism to react to an environmental input with a change in form, state, movement, or rate of activity |
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| phenotypic flexibility that permits traits to change with environmental conditions |
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the gradual intergradation of genetic variation from population to population
"there are no races, there are only clines" |
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| theory arguing the one species gradually transforms itself into a new species over time, yet the actual boundary between species can never be detected and can only be drawn arbitrarily |
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| birth of a variety of descendent species from a single ancestral species |
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| the slow, gradual process of transformation of a single species over time |
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| theory claiming that most of evolutionary history has been characterized by relatively stable species coexisting in an equilibrium that's occasionally punctuated by sudden bursts of speciation, when extinctions are widespread and many new species appear |
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| Tells us which fossils or objects are older or younger than each other |
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| tells us the actual age of sediments or age of an object |
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| radioactive decay measure half life with error |
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| origin of earth to 100,000 years ago, volcanic activity in Africa, 10% margin of error K40 decays into Ar40 with a half life of 1.3 billion years |
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| carbon14 remains constant in organic material and decays at known rate we can measure ration of carbon 12 to 14 establish date of death, North and South America, margin of error 1-10%, dates back to 50,000 years ago |
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Definition
| tree rings 6,000 or 11,000 year ago, cross linking into master sequence |
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| Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships |
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| intruding features must be younger than the strata they cross/disrupt |
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| objects found in lower layers should be older than those found in higher ones |
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| fossils or objects found in the same strata must be contemporaneous |
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| intrusions by faults, lava, or volcanoes that disturb the strata |
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| objects that look alike are from the same period; objects can be arranged in chronological order as styles evolved |
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| measures frequency of different styles as the elements become more or less common |
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| monkeys, apes, prosimians, and humans |
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| New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, apes and humans |
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| Hamadryas baboons and gelada baboons |
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| Australopithecus Afarensis |
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| last common ancestor of subsequent hominins; foramen magnum, bipedal locomotion, small cranial capacity (375-550 cm), Laetoli footprints in tanzania show direct evidence of bipedalism, no sign of culture. 3.9 to 3.0 Mya |
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| Australopithecus Afarensis |
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Definition
Geographic Range: Africa
Distinctive Features: last common ancestor of subsequent hominins; foramen magnum, bipedal locomotion, small cranial capacity (375-550 cm), Laetoli footprints in tanzania show direct evidence of bipedalism, no sign of culture.
Time Span: 3.9 to 3.0 Mya |
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| Robust Australopithecines |
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Definition
Geographic Range: South Africa
Distinctive Features: Sagittal crest, powerful jaws, flat faces, big molars
Time Span: 2.5 to 0.7 Mya |
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Geographic Range: Africa
Distinctive Feature: small and lightly built face
Time Range: 3 to 2 mya |
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Geographic Range: Africa
Distinctive Features: reduced jaws, less prgnathic faces, begins to use culture, probably evolved from gracile austr, first to use tools (Oldowan), "handy man", cranial capacity 550 to 800 cm
Time Range: 2.4 to 1.5 mya contemporaneous with robust australopethecines |
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Geographic Range: Africa, Asia, Europe
Distinctive Features: controlled fire, could cook meat, used Acheulian tools, first to migrate out of Africa, prominent brow ridge, nuchal crest, large brain (750-1250 cm)
Time Range: 1.8 mya to 300,000 ya |
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Geographic Range: Europe and SW Asia
Distinctive Features: shorter and more robust than homo sapiens but otherwise similar morphologically; massive skulls, chinless faces, continuous brow ridges, retromolar space, occipital bun, elongated skulls, low sloping forehead, mousterian tools, group care for elderly
Time Range: 130,000 to 35,000 ya contemporaneous with Homo Sapiens |
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Geographic Range: everywhere
Distinctive Features: rounded and dome skulls, flat face, separate brow ridges large brains
Time Span: 195,000 ya to present |
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| used by H. Habilis, crude cobbles with a few flakes chipped off |
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| used by Homo Erectus, hand axes, shaped on both sides |
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| used by Neanderthals; primarily flakes produced by Levallois technique of core preparation, chipped off slices to produce sharp edges, the tool is the slice (flint) cut off and you cut it from the core (original rock) |
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| used by homo sapiens; created by pressure flaking attached to shafts and used as spear points |
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| found H. erectus skeleton in 1984 in kenya the Turkana boy it is the most complete hominin skeleton |
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| discovered Homo habilis in Oduvai Gorge, found stone tools with the species |
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| human evolution = cultural process |
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| things you can take out of the site, objects that have been deliberately and intelligently created by human activity ex. bones, sherds |
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| things you cannot take out of a site ex. burial sites and pits |
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| 3D context of find within matrix |
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| precise geographical location of the material remains of past human activity |
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| the artifacts and structures from a particular site from the same time and place |
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| portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion of pressure, may be used for weapons. Flakes have sharp edges and were sometimes used as cutting implements. Flakes also were further shaped into tools or were left as waste by-products of flintknapping |
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| physical examination of a geographical region in which promising sites are likely to be found, tons of analysis and recording |
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| an intersecting network of squares, originating at the site datum, that controls the excavation process |
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| any of the various processes by which artifacts move from active use to an archaeological context, such as loss, disposal, abandonment, burial, etc. It is the laying, placing, or throwing down of any material |
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| systematic uncovering of remains through removal of the deposits of soil and other material covering them, recording and analysis |
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| a strategy of statistically selecting portions of a site for excavation (easier to sample because survey and excavation take lots of time and money) |
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| study of sites associated with written records, usually post European contact |
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| addresses the exclusion of women's role in archaeological finds. They seek to include gender in archaeological analysis |
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| Cultural Resource Management |
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| conducts environmental impact assessment of state funded projects-most jobs for archaeologists |
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| reconnecting indigenous or Native American groups to their past |
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| reconstruct the material remains of the past by reassembling pots statues or building. Did NOT include reconstructing past liefeways or cultures of people who left those objects |
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| explain the cultureal processes behind these cultures such as the development of social complexity-bands, tribes, chiefdoms, states |
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| Post-Processual Archaeology |
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| stresses the symbolic and cognitive aspects of social structures and social relations. People are central part again, less scientific, stresses individual and group agency in the face of environmental changes |
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| nail in the ground, everything found in the site is measure relative to the datum |
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| a small, predominantly foraging society of 50 or fewer members that divides labor by age and sex only and provides relatively equal access for all adults to wealth, power, and prestige |
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| a farming or herding society, usually larger than a band, that relies on kinship as the framework for social and political life: provides relatively egalitarian social relations but may have a chief who has more prestige than others. Sometimes called a Rank Society |
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| a socially stratified society, generally larger than a tribe in which a chief and close relatives enjoy privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige and which has greater craft production but few full time specialists |
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| an economic, political, and ideological entity invented by stratified societies: possesses specialized government institutions to administer services and collect taxes and tributes: monopolizes use of force with armies and police; possesses high level and quality of craft production. Often developed wtitting |
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| forms when one state conquers another |
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| increasingly permanent habitation in one place, larger populations and greater demand for food |
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| megafauna died out, a subsistence strategy based on a wide range of plants and animals using hunting, fishing, and gathering-led to sedentism because of more stable resource base: ASSOCIATED WITH BAND-LEVEL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION THAT IS SEMI-NOMADIC |
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| a form of social organization in which people have unequal access to wealth, power, and prestige |
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| marked by the beginning of domestication |
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| machu pichu, greather-than-human scale such as pyramids, temples, and tombs |
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| large cave carvings, designs and drawings |
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| something that stands for something else |
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| the exercise of at least some control over their lives by human beings |
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| the dialectical relationship between biological processes and symbolic cultural processes, in which each makes up an important part of the environment to which the other must adapt |
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| the opinion that one's way of life is natural or correct and, indeed, the only true way of being fully human |
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| understanding another culture in its own terms sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living |
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| system of arbitrary vocal symbols that encodes a person's experience of the world and social interactions |
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combines cultural anthropology, emphasizes pragmatics
Combines linguistics with ethnography to understand how language is used in social situations |
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| studies the ethnographic context in which speech is constituted by social interaction and also constitutes social interaction |
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| language has the pwer to shape the way people see the world |
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| a language that has no known linguistic affiliation with any other language such as Basque or Tarascan |
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| a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor |
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| the specific groups of people associated with a given language |
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| set of rules for language use in a given speech community |
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| people know many different ways of speaking dependent on context has two levels; sound and meaning |
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| composed of phonemes based on systematic patterns to form meaning bearing units |
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| small restricted set of sounds that characterize a language |
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| rules associated with sentence structure |
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| is not a defective form of English. it is a language with its own grammar, syntax, etc. |
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| study of language and the context in which it is used |
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| refers to the objects or activities surrounding the expression |
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| refers to the other words, expressions, and sentence surrounding an expression |
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| Stretch of speech longer than a sentence and united by a common theme |
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| musical characteristics of speech |
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| Linguistic Relativity Principle says that language has the power to shape the way people see the world |
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| Came up with speaking model, communicative competence |
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| defined linguistic competence as the mastery of adult grammar, languages cna have universal rules or underlying universal structures |
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| language is a patterned system; linguistic anthropology is the study of language as a cultural resource; speaking is a cultural practice; created term ethnopragmatics |
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specified 16 design features of languages that set the apart from animal communication
1.Openness-language is creative
2.Displacement-ability to talk about absent and nonexistent objects
3.Arbitrariness-no concrete link between sounds and meaning
4.Grammar-set of rules of language
5.Semanticity-the association of linguistic signals with aspects of the social, cultural, and physical world of a speech community
6.Prevarication-make linguistic messages that are false |
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| language developed with no native speakers, single generation, distinct native language exists |
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| system by which people reckon social relatedness based on mating, birth, and nurturance |
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| assumes that relatedness is based on just one's father or mother's line |
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| assumes that relatedness is based on both the father and the mother's line |
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| Consanguineal Relationship |
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| are decent ties based on blood or biological descent |
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| are ties based on marriage |
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| males and females belong to their mother's lineage ex. Navajo, Hopi, and Ashanti |
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| males and females belong to their father's lineage |
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marriage outside the lineage
(enhances gene flow) |
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marriage within the lineage
(enhances genetic drift) |
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