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| A complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable people to survive and even thrive. |
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| A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and all the organisms living within it. |
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| The notion that humans are moving forward to better, more advanced stage in their cultural development towatd perfection. |
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| In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different peoples with different ancestral cultures. |
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| In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples who ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike. |
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| A geographic region in which a number of societies follow similar patterns of life. |
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| Cultural features that are fundamental in the society's way of making its living-including food-producing techniques, knowledge of available resources, and the work arrangements involved in applying those techniques to the local environment. |
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| Hunting fishing, and gathering wild plant foods. |
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| The number of people that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques. |
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| density of social relations |
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| The number and intensity of interactions among the members of a camp. |
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| The New Stone Age; prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which people posessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants and/or animals. |
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| Sometimes referred to as Neolithic revolution. The profound culture change beginning about 10,000 years ago and associated with the early domestication of plants and animals, and setlement in permanent villages. |
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| Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes. |
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| Also known as swidden farming. An extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes. |
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| The cultivation of food and plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production. involves using technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals. |
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| Breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, llamas, or camels. |
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| A rural cultivator whos surplusses are transferred to a dominant group of rulers that uses the surpluses both to underwrite its own standard of living and to distribute the remainder to groups in society that do not farm but must be fed for their specific goods and services in turn. |
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| An organized arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods. |
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| Tools and other material equipment, together with the knowledge of how to make and use them. |
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| The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties. |
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| A mode of exchange in which the value of what is given is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified. |
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| a mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery. |
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| A form of exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little as possible. Neither fair nor balanced, it may invoolve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating. |
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| A form of barter in which no verbal communication takes place. |
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| A form of balanced reciprocity that reinforces trade relations among the seafaring Trobriad people, who inhabit a large rinf of islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Papua new Guinea, and other Melanesians. |
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| A form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated. |
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| A showy display of wealth for social prestige. |
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| On the northwest coast of North America, a ceremonial event in which a village chief publicly gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth. |
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| Creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of wealth that is given away as gifts. |
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| A cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else. |
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| The buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand. |
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| Something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their value. |
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| A network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control. |
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| The ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wants or wishes. |
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| The way power is distributed and embedded in society; the means through which a society creates and maintains social order. |
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| A relatively small and loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically independent. |
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| In anthropology, refers to a range of kin-ordered groups tha tare politically integrated by some unifying factor and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory. |
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| A regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people. |
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| In anthropology, a centralized polity involving large numbers of people withing a defined territory who are divided into social classes and organized and directed by a formal government that has the capacity and authority to make laws, and use force to defend the social order. |
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| A people who share a collective identity based on a common culture, language, territorial base, and history. |
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| The right of political leaders to govern-to hold, use, and allocate power-based on the values of a particular society. |
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| Control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals. |
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| External control through open coercion. |
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| An externalized social control designed to encourage conformity to social norms. |
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| Formal rules of conduct that, when violated, effectuate negative sanctions. |
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| The use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement. |
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| Settlement of a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party. |
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| Mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision. |
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| The collective body of ideas that members of a culture generally share concerning the ultimate shape and substance of their reality. |
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| An organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere or the supernatural, along with associated ceremonial practices by which people try to interpret and/or influence aspects of the universe otherwise beyond their control. |
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| Concern with the sacred, as distinguished from material matters. Often individual rather than collective and does not require a distinctive format or traditional organization. |
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| Belief in several gods and/or goddesses (as contrasted with monotheism-belief in one god or goddess). |
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| The several gods and goddesses of a people. |
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| A belief that nature is animated (enlivened or energized) by distinct personalized spirit beings seperable from bodies. |
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| A belief that nature is enlivened or energized by an impersonal spiritual power or supernatural potency. |
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| A full-time religious specialist formally recognized for his or her role in guiding the religious practices of others and for contacting and influencing supernatural powers. |
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| A person who enters an altered state of consciousness-at will-to contact and utilize an ordinarily hidden reality in order to acquire knowledge, power, and to help others. |
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| A ritual that marks an important stage in an individuals life cycle, such as birth, marriage, and death. |
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| In a rite of passage, the ritual removal of the individual from society. |
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| In a rite of passage, isolation of the individual following separation and prior to incorporation into society. |
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| In a rite of passage, reincorporation of the individual into society in his or her new status. |
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| A ritual that takes place during a crisis in the life of the group and serves to bind individuals together. |
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| Magic based on the principle that like produces like; sometimes called sympathetic magic. |
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| Magic based on the principle that things or persons once in contact can influence each other after the contact is broken. |
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| An explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death. |
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| A magical procedure or spritual ritual designed to find out about what is not knowable by ordinary means, such as foretelling the future by interpreting omens. |
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| A movement for radical cultural reform in response to widespread social disruption and collective feelings of great stress and dipair. |
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| A spiritual movement (especially noted on Melanesia) in reaction to disruptive contact with Western capitalism, promising resurrection of deceased relatives, destruction or enslavement of white foreigners, and the magical arrival of utopian riches. |
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| The creative use of the human imagination to aesthetically interpret, express, and engage life, modifying experienced reality in the process. |
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| Culturally specific people, animals, and monsters seen in the deepest stage of trance. |
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| A term coined by 19th century scholars studying the unwritten stories and other artistic traditions of rural peoples to distinguish between "folk art" and the "fine art" of the literate elite. |
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| A sacred narrative that explains the fundamentals of human existence-where we and everything in our world came from, why we are here, and where we are going. |
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| A story about a memorable event or figure handed down by tradition and told as true but without historical evidence. |
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| A long dramatic narrative recounting the celebrated deeds of a historic or legendary hero-often sung or recited in poetic language. |
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| A creative narrative that is recognized as fiction for entertainment but may also draw a moral or teach a practical lesson. |
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| A story situation in a tale. |
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| The study of a society's music in terms of its cultural setting. |
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| In music, scale systems and their modifications. |
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| A system of communication using sounds or gestures that are put together in meaningful ways according to a set of rules. |
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| An instinctive sound or gestire that has a natural or self-evident meaning. |
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| The modern scientific study of all aspects of language. |
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| The systematic identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language. |
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| The study of language sounds. |
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| The smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning in a language. |
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| The study of the patterns or rules of word formation in a language (including suchthings as rules concerning verb tense, pluralization, and compound words). |
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| The smallest unit of sound that carries a meaning in language. It is distinct from a phenome, which can alter meaning but has no meaning itself. |
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| The patterns or rules by which morphemes are arranged into phrases and sentences. |
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| The entire formal structure of a language, including morphology and syntax. |
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| A group of languages descended from a single ancestral language. |
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| The development of different languages from a single ancestral language. |
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| In linguistics, a method for identifying the approximate time that languages branched off from a common ancestor. It is based on alalyzing core vocabularies. |
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| The most basic and long-lasting words in any language-pronouns, lower numerals, and names for body parts and natural objects. |
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| The attempt by thnic minorities and even countries to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms. |
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| The study of the relationship between language and society through examining how social categories (such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and class) influence the use and significance of distinctive styles of speech. |
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| Distinct male and female speech patterns, which vary across social and cultural settings. |
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| Varying forms of a language that reflects particular regions, occupations, or social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible. |
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| Changing from one level of language to another as the situation demands, whether from one language to another or from one dialect of a language to another. |
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| A branch of linguistics that studies the relationships between language and culture and how they mutually influence and inform each other. |
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| The idea that distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language. |
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| The idea that language to some extent shapes the way in which we view and think about the world around us; sometimes called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis after its originators Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf. |
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| The cross-cultural study of humankind's perception and use of space. |
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| Voice effects that accompany language and convey meaning. These include vocalization such as giggling, groaning, or sighing, as well as voice qualities such as pitch and tempo. |
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| A language in which the sound pitch of a spoken word is an essential part of its pronunciation and meaning. |
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| Referring to things and events removed in time and space. |
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| A set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way. |
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| A series of symbols representing the sounds of a language arranged in a traditional order. |
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