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| anything that occupies space and has mass |
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| capacity to do work; potential and kinetic |
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| cannot be broken down into 2 or more different substances |
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| smallest unit of an element |
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| substance composed of 2 or more elements |
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| smallest unit of a compound |
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| abbreviations for names of elements |
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| made of protons and neutrons |
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| positively charged particles; weight 1.007 daltons |
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| electrically neutral particles; weigh 1.008 daltons |
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| surround nucleus; negative particles; move in orbitals or shells; weigh 0.0005 daltons |
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| number of protons plus neutrons; atomic number - number of protons, and number of electrons |
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| - atoms with same atomic number but different atomic weight; differ in number of neutrons |
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1st orbital- 2 electrons
2nd orbital- 8 electrons
3rd orbital- 8 electrons
4th orbital- |
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| complete giving up or taking on of an electron; when loses or gains electron becomes a charged atom or ion; ions in solution known as electrolytes; unlike charges attract and attraction called ionic bond |
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| sharing of electron pairs; if one pair of electrons is shared, known as single bond; two pairs shared a double bond; and three pairs shared a triple bond |
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| - between hydrogen and O or N |
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| combining of 2+ substances to form more complex structures |
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| Decomposition (catabolism) |
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| - breaking down of substance into two or more simpler structures (Will produce energy) |
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| decomposition of 2 substances and synthesis of new compounds |
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| proceed in both directions (build energy or break it down) |
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| Can participate in chemical reactions |
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Absorbs and releases heat slowly (high heat of vaporization and specific heat)
Serves as lubricant
Very cohesive |
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| Other Inorganic compounds |
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Acid - dissociates into one or more H+ and anions
Base (alkaline) - dissociates into one or more OH- and one or more cations
Salt - dissociates into cations and anions neither of which is hydrogen or hydroxyl ions |
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| pH - measure of H+ concentration |
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Definition
Degree of alkalinity or acidity of a solution
pH scale ranges from 0 - 14 with 7 being neutral, less than 7 acidic and more than 7 basic
pH maintained through buffering system - buffering system converts strong acids and bases into weak acids and bases. Buffers keep the pH relatively constant (to maintain homeostasis) |
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• Functions
Structural unit, emergency source of energy, food reserves, **provides most immediate source of energy (What we use the most for ATP) |
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Monosaccharides - simple sugars;
Named by number of carbons they contain: triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose
Hexose sugar glucose primary energy source; pentose sugar ribose and deoxyribose important in nucleic acids |
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| What are the building blocks of carbohydrates? |
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-Two monosaccharides minus molecule of water (dehydration synthesis)
-Main disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose |
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Three or more monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis
Glycogen is chief polysaccharide in humans-storage for energry |
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| contain H, O, C - most are insoluble in water (polar solvents) |
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| Function as energy reservoir |
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| Building blocks of Triglycerides |
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| Building blocks-Fatty acid and glycerol |
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| all carbon atoms held together by single bonds |
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| (has one or more double bonds in fatty acids; |
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glycerol with 2 fatty acids and a phosphate
Function as major structural component of cell membrane |
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| Structural, regulatory (hormones), contractile, immunological (antibodies), transport (hemoglobin), catalytic (enzymes) |
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| What are the building blocks of protein? |
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| Amino acids - basic building blocks |
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| Bond formed between 2 amino acids |
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Dipeptides - 2 amino acids
Polypeptides - more than 3 amino acids |
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| -Speed up chemical reactions without becoming part of the product |
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| building blocks; consist of pentose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base |
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| Single stranded, ribose sugar, bases |
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| U(uracil), A(Anacin), C(cystocele), G(Gloning) |
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- transporter, channel, receptor, enzyme, cytoskeleton anchor, and cell identity marker. Functions
-Maintenance of cell’s integrity (flexible boundary)
-Defines the cell
-Defense - facilitates contact with other body cells or foreign cells or substances
-Transportation - some but not all materials are moved through membrane
-Semipermeable membrane
-Communication - provides receptors for chemicals |
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-Ion channels - have pore or hole for specific ions to pass through;
-Like olive-hole in center for things to move through. Proteins could move through that channel |
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| selectively move polar substances across membrane by changing shape |
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| cellular recognition sites; recognizes and binds to specific type of molecule (called a ligand) |
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| catalyze specific chemical reactions; may be integral or peripheral proteins |
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| - enable cell to recognize other cells of same kind |
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| anchor proteins in plasma membrane of neighboring cells to one another or to protein filaments inside or outside; may be integral or peripheral proteins |
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| movement from region of greater concentration to lesser concentration |
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| movement of particles from region of greater conc. to region of lesser conc. until equally distributed |
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| diffusion mediated by carriers (specific proteins) in cell membrane; occurs faster than diffusion and depends on |
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| movement of water molecules through selectively permeable membrane from area of higher water conc. to an area of lower water conc. |
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| - one that has same conc. of water and solute molecules on both sides of plasma membrane |
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| has lower conc. of solutes thus higher conc. of water; rbc undergo hemolysis |
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| has higher conc. of solutes and lower conc. of water than normal; rbc under crenation (>.09NaCl) [Crenation-shrivels up] |
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| movement of solvents (water and dissolved substances) across selectively permeable membrane by gravity or mechanical pressure |
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| diffusion of solute particles across selectively permeable membrane and separates small molecules from large molecules |
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| involve an expenditure of energy; move from low to high concentration |
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| - movement of substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration |
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| energy is obtained from hydrolysis of ATP; sodium/potassium pump |
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| brings substances into cells |
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| (“cell drinking”) - engulfment of liquid particles |
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| results in secretion; movement of materials out of a cell; secretory vesicles formed inside cell fuse with plasma membrane and discharge contents |
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Functions
Provides framework for cell; helps determine cell’s shape and organize cellular contents
Aids in movement of organelles within cell, of chromosomes during cell division, and whole cells in phagocytosis
Types of proteins
Microfilaments
Microtubules |
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Definition
Structure
Dense cytoplasmic material containing pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material
are tiny cylinders composed of nine groups of microtubules with three tiny microtubules in each group forms mitotic spindle and microtubules in nondividing cells |
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Protein synthesis
Composition
Tiny granules of rRNA and protein
Function
Protein synthesis |
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| - network of canals and sacs extending through cytoplasm |
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| site of fatty acid, phospholipid, and steroid synthesis and detoxifies some chemicals |
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| - ribosomes attached synthesize proteins for export |
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| Golgi Apparatus or Complex |
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Structure - 4-8 flattened baglike channels or vesicles near nucleus
Functions
Synthesizes large carbohydrate molecules, combines them with proteins, and secretes product (glycoproteins)
Lipids synthesized by SER pass into
_____ complex and are packaged for export [exocytosis] |
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Definition
Oval structures
Composed of two membranes; inner membrane highly folded into cristae
Center is called matrix
Function
Powerhouses of cell; involved in cellular respiration (major place of ATP)
Provide about 95% of cell’s energy |
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microscopic membranous sacs
Function
Cell’s own digestive system; contains hydrolytic enzymes to breakdown particles that enter them
Under some conditions digest and destroy cells themselves; “suicide bags” |
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Function
Contain enzymes involved in breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
Oxidize (remove hydrogen ions) from organic substances--amino acids and fatty acids
Oxidize toxic substances like alcohol |
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| continuously destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins, found in the cytosol and the nucleus |
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two layered and has pores for communication with cytoplasm
DNA - chromatin material
Nucleoli are involved in ribosome formation
DNA - determines structure and function of cells and heredity |
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| - genetic information of DNA is copied by a strand of mRNA |
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- information of mRNA specifies amino acid sequence of protein
mRNA travels to ribosome |
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Interphase - cell replicates DNA
G1 phase - first growth phase
S phase (synthesis) - DNA replication occurs
G2 phase - second growth phase; preparation made for cell division |
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| Process of cell division; chromosome number constant |
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Chromosomes become visible as double-stranded structure
Centrioles migrate to poles and spindle fibers appear
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear |
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| chromosomes line up on equatorial plate |
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| - centromeres separate and chromatids move to opposite poles |
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Chromosomes uncoil and resemble chromatin material
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-form
Spindle fibers disappear
Cytokinesis occurs - cytoplasm divides by cleavage furrow |
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| reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes |
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| gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes |
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| begins with a diploid cell and ends with two cells having the haploid number of chromosomes |
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| each of the two haploid cells divides, the net result is four haploid gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell |
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| The average adult has nearly |
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| There are about 200 different types of |
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| Cells come in a variety of |
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| Cellular diversity permits organization of cells into |
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| more complex tissues and organs |
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| study of structure and relationship among structures |
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| structures that can be studied without microscope |
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| covers specific systems of body |
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| - covers specific regions |
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| how the body works, functions |
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| study of disease; functional changes |
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| study of bodies defense mechanisms |
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| Gently touching body surfaces with hands |
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| Tapping on the body surface with fingertips and listening to echoes |
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| Characteristics of living things |
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Metabolism - sum of all chemical processes; includes anabolism and catabolism
Contractility - capacity to generate force and change form for movement
Growth - increase in size
Differentiation - unspecialized cells change to specialized cells
Reproduction - formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement; or production of new individual
Responsiveness - sense and respond to changes within and around us
Conductivity - ability to carry effect of stimulus from one part of cell to another |
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| relative constancy of the internal environment, notably with respect to its chemical composition, osmotic pressure, hydrogen ion concentration, and temperature |
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Physical insults
Intense heat or lack of oxygen
Changes in the internal environment
Drop in blood glucose due to lack of food
Physiological stress
Demands of work or school
Disruptions
Mild and temporary (balance is quickly restored)
Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections) |
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| What Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted by |
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Receptor
Control center
Effector |
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Definition
| Three Basic components of feedback system |
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| Negative Feedback systems |
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Definition
Reverses a change in a controlled condition
Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses against the walls of the blood vessels) |
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| Positive Feedback systems |
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Strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions
Normal child birth |
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Definition
Moderate imbalance
Disorder or abnormality of structure and function
Disease specific for an illness with recognizable signs and symptoms
Signs are objective changes such as a fever or swelling
Symptoms are subjective changes such as headache
Severe imbalance
Death |
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Epidemiology
Occurrence of diseases
Transmission in a community
Pharmacology
Effects and uses of drugs
Treatment of disease |
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| Opposite sides-opposite position. |
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| - upper middle - left lobe and medial part right lobe of liver, pyloric and lesser curvature of stomach, part of duodenum, body and upper part of head of pancreas, adrenal glands |
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| right lobe of liver, gall bladder, upper 1/3 of right kidney |
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| body and fundus of stomach, spleen, upper 2/3 of left kidney, tail of pancreas |
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| middle of transverse colon, inferior part of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, hilar regions of kidneys, branching of abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava |
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| superior part of cecum, ascending colon, lower lateral portion of right kidney, and small intestine |
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| descending colon, lower third of left kidney, small intestine |
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| urinary bladder, small intestine, part of sigmoid colon |
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| lower end of cecum, appendix, small intestine |
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| junction of descending and sigmoid parts of colon and small intestine |
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Definition
produce image of interior structures
Inexpensive and quick
Hollow structures appear black or gray
Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone)
At low dose, useful for soft tissue (breast)
Mammography (breast)
Bone densitometry (bone density) |
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| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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Definition
High energy magnetic field
Protons in body fluid align with field
Color image on a video monitor
2D and 3D blueprint
Relatively safe procedure
Not used on patients containing metal
Used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues
Tumors, brain abnormalities, blood flow |
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| Computer-Assisted radiography (CT-Scan) |
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Definition
3-D structures
Visualize soft tissue in more detail than conventional radiography
Tissue intensities show varying degrees of gray
Whole-body CT scan
Lung and kidney cancers, coronary artery disease |
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Definition
High frequency sound waves
Sonogram
Noninvasive, painless, no dyes
Pregnancy (fetus) |
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Definition
Radioactive substance (radionuclide) given intravenously
Gamma rays detected by camera
Radionuclide image displays on video monitor
Color intensity represents uptake
Single-photo-emission computerized tomography (SPECT)
Specialized technique used for brain, heart, lungs, and liver |
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| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) |
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Definition
Collision between positrons and negatively charged electron in body tissues
Gamma rays produced
Computer constructed a PET scan image in color
Used to study physiology of body structures (metabolism) |
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Lighted instrument with lens
Image projected onto a monitor |
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