Term
| earthquakes represent a buildup of stress in the ____ (layer of earth) |
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Definition
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Term
| planar breaks in rock along which there is displacement of one side relative to the other |
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Definition
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Term
| when movement along faults occurs gradually and smoothly -- rarely causes damage |
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Definition
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Term
| earthquake (seismic slip) |
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Definition
| when the stress of the earth moving exceeds the rupture strength of the rock and a sudden movement occurs |
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Term
| when rocks snap back to their previous dimensions after sudden displacement (earthquake) |
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Definition
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Term
| point on a fault at which the first movement or break occurs during an earthquake |
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Definition
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|
Term
| deep-focus earthquakes have focal depths over __km |
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Definition
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Term
| the point on the earth's surface directly above the focus |
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Definition
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Term
| deep-focus earthquakes are concentrated in ___ zones. why? |
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Definition
| subduction - because the deeper earth is more elastic and fluid |
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Term
| when an earthquake occurs, it releases the stored up energy in ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| P and S waves are ___ waves |
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Definition
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Term
| __ waves are compression waves |
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Definition
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Term
| __ waves are shear waves, involving side to side motion |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ waves are similar to surface waves on water because they cause rocks and soil to be displaced so that the ground ripples |
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Definition
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Term
| most damage from earthquakes is caused by ___ waves |
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Definition
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Term
| seismographs detect the epicenter using __ waves |
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Definition
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Term
| P waves are known as ___ waves and S as ___ waves why? |
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Definition
| primary, secondary - bc the P wave arrives before the S |
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Term
| the amount of ground motion is related to the ___ of the earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
| ___ is a better measurement of relative energy release of an earthquake bc it takes into account the area of the break on the surface, the displacement along the fault, and the strenght of the rock. |
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Definition
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Term
| measure of an earthquake's effects on humans and surface structure |
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Definition
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Term
| most commonly used intensity scale in the US |
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Definition
| modified Mercalli intensity scale - 1-12 intensities |
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Term
| seismic sea waves caused by an undersea or near-shore earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
| dormant, quiescent sections of otherwise active fault zones |
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Definition
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Term
| implications of seismic gaps |
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Definition
| represent "locked" sections of faults along which normal slipping is prevented... often represent spots of future, serious earthquakes |
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Term
| things that happen or rock properties that change prior to an earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
| because earthquake predicting is not a refined science yet, the US tends to rely more on ____ |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| the idea that major earthquakes occur at more or less regular intervals and follow a cycle along a fault segment that includes a period of stress buildup, sudden fault rupture in a major earthquake, a period of aftershocks, then another extended period of stress buildup |
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Term
| magma is typically generated at what 3 plate-tectonic settings? |
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Definition
| at divergent plate boundaries (ocean ridges and continental rift zones), over subduction zones, at 'hot spots' |
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Term
| isolated areas of volcanic activity that are not associated with current plate boundaries |
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Definition
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Term
| magma that is rich in iron and magnesium is referred to as ___. silica-rich magma is referred to as ___. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| __ forms new sea floor and is caused |
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Definition
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|
Term
| what kind of magma is more explosive? |
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Definition
| silica-rich (felsic) because it tends to trap gases -- whereas mafic tends to let gases flow through |
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Term
| The Pacific "ring of fire" is so seismically/volcanically active because ..? |
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Definition
| it is a ring of subduction zones |
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Term
| Kilimanjaro is associated with ____ zones |
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Definition
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|
Term
| volcanic rock is ___ rock formed where? |
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Definition
| igneous rock formed at or near the earth's surface |
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Term
| most volcanic rock is created by ____. |
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Definition
| seafloor spreading ridges |
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Term
| the eruption of magma out of a crack in the lithosphere, rather than from a single pipe or vent... happens at spreading ridges |
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Definition
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|
Term
| mafic basaltic lavas build volcanoes that are flat and low in relation to their diameter... this is called |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the hawaiian volcanoes are ___ volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| rhyolitic and andesitic lavas tend to build __ ]because of their thick, viscous nature. example of one of these? |
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Definition
| volcanic domes - mt. st. helens |
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Term
| bits of violently erupted volcanic material |
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Definition
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|
Term
| when pyroclastics fall close to the place where they fell near the mouth of the volcano, these form |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blobs of liquid lava that are thrown from a volcano during an eruption |
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Term
| volcanoes that erupt some pyroclastics, then some lava, then more pyroclastics, and so on are called ____ because they are built up of varying layers. |
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Definition
| composite volcanoes or stratovolcanoes |
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|
Term
| the cascade range in the western US, including my. st. helens are ___ volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| How did the Icelandic island of Heimaey fight back against it's volcanic eruption? |
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Definition
| they ran metal pipes with cool water in front of the lava flow so that the lava cooled and solidified and thus stopped further flow |
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Term
| volcanic "mud" formed by the combination of volcanic ash with water |
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Definition
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|
Term
| denser-than-air mixture of hot gases and fine ash forms a hot ____, AKA ____. |
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Definition
| pyroclastic flow - nuees ardentes |
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Term
| when large quantities of water (often seawater on volcanic islands) seep down into the rock and are heated to steam by the hot magma, and then burst forth out of the volcano |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| most famous phreatic explosion |
|
Definition
| Krakatoa in Indonesia (1883) |
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Term
| 3 categories of volcanoes based on their activity |
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Definition
| active, dormant, or extinct |
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Term
| an enlarged volcanic summit crater, which may be formed by either an explosion enlarging an existing crater or by collapse of a volcano after a magma chamber within has emptied |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| biofuels are primarily made from ____ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lessens dependence on oil, good for the economy (creates jobs), renewable resource, cleaner burning, disaggregated (not as many middlemen) |
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Term
|
Definition
| instability ("bad years" for corn), land pressure (soil erosion, deforestation), water needs, price, crop displacement (everyone can't grow corn), transformational costs (turning corn into ethanol), more ethanol per mile needed than gas |
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|
Term
| 2 other ways to make ehtanol (than corn) |
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Definition
| algae, sugar cane, cellulosic material ("throw away" parts of plants) |
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Term
| the ultimate source of energy is? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| wind, biofuel, hydropower, fossil fuels, geothermal power, tidal power, solar power |
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|
Term
| 4 types of consumed energy |
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Definition
| electricity, heat, gas, oil |
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Term
|
Definition
| plastic from petroleum, light, transportation, work |
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|
Term
| ___ is the country that uses the most energy. ____ is the country that uses the most energy per capita. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the total oil in the world is about ____ barrels. The total recoverable oil is about ____ barrels. The proven oil is about ____ barrels. Already consumed ___ barrels. |
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Definition
| 4 trillion, 2 trillion, 1.3 trillion, 0.8 trillion |
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|
Term
| we have about ___ years left of oil at this point and this consumption |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| why is natural gas being favored over oil and coal? how much of our total energy is natural gas? |
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Definition
| it releases less CO2 - 25% |
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|
Term
| ___ is made up of large accumulations of terrestrial plant material (lignin) buried into the waterlogged soil. The organic remains then gradually turn into ___, porous brown organic material, which contains about __% carbon |
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Definition
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|
Term
| peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite coal have increasing/decreasing carbon contents in that order |
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Definition
| increasing (peat is about 50%, anthracite about 90%) |
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|
Term
| What country has the largest coal reserves? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What area has the largest oil reserves? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the fuel in oil shale is ____, which is organic materials in various stages of degradation. How is oil shale produced? |
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Definition
| kerogen -- must first be crushed then heated to distill out the hydrocarbons, which can then be refined to crude oil |
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Term
| ___ are sedimentary rock containing a very thick, semi-solid, tar-like petroleum. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the oil reserves in the ANWR give us about how much oil in the US? (Barrels and time) |
|
Definition
| 3.2 Billion barrels -- 1 year |
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Term
|
Definition
| good lightbulbs, insulation, eliminating "standby" of electronics, transportation efficiency, etc |
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|
Term
| solar energy, in general, is about __% efficient |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wood, compressed organics, peat, ethanol, biofuel |
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|
Term
| how is wind power proportional to velocity? |
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Definition
| power is the cube of velocity (double wind speed, 8x as much power) |
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|
Term
| UV_ makes vitamin D. UV_ is considered the most damaging. UV_ is entirely absorbed before it reaches earth. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| strength of UV radiation is directly related to ____. |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| climate change is due to shifting of energy into its ___ expression and thereby changing the _____ balance. |
|
Definition
| temperature, thermodynamic |
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|
Term
| in general, it gets colder as we move further into the atmosphere away from the earth's surface with the exception of the _____. this is becaus? |
|
Definition
| thermosphere - because it absorbs UVC |
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|
Term
| deserts are created at about 30 degrees N&S latitudes due to _____ |
|
Definition
| Hadley cells - trap air low against the earth |
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|
Term
| how does the ITCZ create a positive feedback system? |
|
Definition
| Itertropical Convergence Zone - low pressure heats up air and causes it to expand and rise, this creates a vacuum that pulls air in from the side and back out the top |
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|
Term
| evaporation releases/uses energy. condensation releases/uses energy. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| heat associated with phase change of water |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| energy for wind comes from? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| why do winds at beaches change direction during the day from night? |
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Definition
| the water stays about the same temp and the temp of the land changes -- during the day, the land is warmer and wind blows out to the ocean, reverse at night |
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|
Term
| "merry go round effect" caused by the coriolis effect |
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Definition
| like trying to throw a ball to someone standing in the middle of a merry go round -- the middle (equator) goes faster than the outside (higher latitudes) |
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|
Term
| the coriolis effect makes the northern hemisphere bend left/right |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| key points about the coriolis effect |
|
Definition
| wind is created by pressure differences, there is a difference in ground speed at different latitudes |
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|
Term
| Winter: the ITCZ bends over __ and lags over ___. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| in a low/high pressure system, heating at the surface causes water to heat and rise |
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Definition
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|
Term
| air tends to flow from areas of ___ pressure to areas of ___ pressure |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what creates the monsoons in india in july? |
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Definition
| ITCZ is over india but the large mountain range forces air upward which creates huge thunderstorms |
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|
Term
| preindustrial CO2 concentration and current |
|
Definition
| preindustrial: 280, now: 390ppm |
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|
Term
| ___ is the essence of climate change. why? |
|
Definition
| resonance due to the frequency of thermal energy in the air that resonates with CO2 and transfers energy to it |
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|
Term
| CO2 concentrations increase with ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Things that cause global cooling |
|
Definition
| biomass burning, sulfate aerosols, aircraft contrails, stratospheric ozone |
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|
Term
| a slow moving river that goes through all oceans and brings warm salty water from the tropics to the extratropics -- makes ireland warmer than it should be |
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Definition
| thermohaline (ex: gulf stream) |
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|
Term
| main reason for current rising sea levels |
|
Definition
| thermal expansion of water |
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Term
|
Definition
| energy is contained in al the stuff we use - paper, food, etc - it takes energy to cut down a tree and make it into paper and then ship it to the store |
|
|
Term
| ___ tons of carbon emissions per year |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| countries agreed to reduce emissions on average 5% below their 1990 level by 2010 |
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|
Term
| framework convention on climate change |
|
Definition
| defined the problem of GHG in the atmosphere - almost every country signed it, but not everyone did something about it. established differential responsibility. 1994 |
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|
Term
| mid-oceanic ridge formed by rocks separating the ocean - one side is america, the other is europe |
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Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| oceanic plate slides under land and melts then bubbles up and is released via volcanoes -- created san andreas fault |
|
|
Term
| most fatal earthquakes are a combination of what 3 things? |
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Definition
| strength of earthquake, number of people in the area, quality of structures in the area |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| layers of the earth - out to in |
|
Definition
| crust, upper mantle, asthenosphere, outer core, inner core |
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|
Term
| the lithosphere is made up of what layers? |
|
Definition
| uppermost mantle and crust |
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|
Term
| there are how many major plates in the earth? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a subduction zone "ate" the mid-ocean ridge in the pacific NW US and resulted in the strike slip san andreas fault |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
| earthquake in ocean 60 mi offshore set off tsunami for over 10 hours and struck 12 countries, 150,000 killed |
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|
Term
| characteristics of earthquakes that generate tsunamis |
|
Definition
| epicenter underneath or near the ocean, fault that causes vertical movement of the sea floor over a large area, magnitude over 7.5 and focus under 70km |
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|
Term
| 3 general appearances of a tsunami wave |
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Definition
| fast-rising tide, cresting wave, step=like change in water level that advances rapidly |
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|
Term
| how does global warming effect arctic animal populations |
|
Definition
| ice sheets melt, krill that eat algae off them die, whales and penguins that eat krill die also |
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|
Term
| ___ circulate air in the troposphere to constantly redistribute air around the world |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 layers of the atmosphere (ground up) |
|
Definition
| troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| surfaces that reflect light have low/high albedo |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| energy that is released by the earth to the atmosphere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the greenhouse effect is created by ___ energy |
|
Definition
| terrestrial -- lets light through but traps heat |
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|
Term
| large convection currents that distribute heat globally |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| high/low pressure = rising air |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| areas of frequent low/high pressure tend to get the most rain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hurricane-force winds at the top of the troposphere that circle the earth |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| regular seasonal winds and rain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| wherever the sun shines most/least brightly is where the strongest convection currents, rainfall, and storms are |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cold air displaces warmer air and moves under it - generates strong convection currents and thus strong storms |
|
|
Term
| which is caused by the coriolis effect: hurricanes or tornadoes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do we get knowledge about climate patterns throughout history |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| periodic changes in the earths orbit and tilt - cause dramatic climate swings |
|
|
Term
| ___ happens every 3-5 years when ocean temperatures rise. ___ happens in the intervening years |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| el nino southern oscillation - overall cycle of el nino and la nina |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dryer areas tend to get more rain, wetter areas are dryer |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O and SF6 |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| more CO2 helps plants fluorish, warmer temps = longer growing seasons, stronger storms = less drought |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| increase in sea level (more floods), stronger storms/hurricanes, increase in infectious disease due to more bugs, release of methane hydrate from melting permafrost |
|
|
Term
| Carbon enrichment studies - FACE |
|
Definition
| free air carbon enrichment - plants do better with more carbon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| natural gas instead of coal, promote energy efficiency, raise gas taxes, nuclear power, wind energy |
|
|
Term
| carbon management strategies |
|
Definition
| plant trees, phytoplankton, crop rotation, collect methane for energy, reduce soot emissions, pump CO2 into deep oceans |
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|
Term
| energy sources that formed from the remains of once-living organisms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale, tar sand |
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fossil fuels take at least ___ years to form and are thus nonrenewable |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| accumulations of fossil fuels that can be gotten with current technology |
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|
Term
| fossil fuels are really only found in land that is made up of ___ rock |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recovery using no technology other than drilling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pumping in water to fill pore spaces and buoy up the oil by increasing pressure |
|
|
Term
| between primary and secondary recovery, we are able to recover about how much of the oil in a given well? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| alternatives natural gas sources |
|
Definition
| coal-bed methane (methane gas produced by coal formation), geopressurized zones (deep in the earth, increased temp and pressure change oil to gas that is absorbed into the underground water), methane hydrates (crystalline solids of gas and water molecules found in the arctic and oceans) |
|
|
Term
| pattern of US energy consumption |
|
Definition
| flattened in 70s and 80s, rose in 90s, flattening again |
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|
Term
| ___ is an energy source formed from the remains of land plants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hard/soft coal has highest carbon content and is thus most desirable as fuel |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| environmental impact of coal - produces ___ when burned |
|
Definition
| CO2 -- also releases sulfur which can cause acid rain |
|
|
Term
| what is the most commonly used ion for fission |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most uranium is found in ___ rock |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a material that slows neutrons running through the core of a nuclear reactor enough that a chain reaction can be sustained |
|
Definition
| moderator -- US is water, Chernobyl was graphite |
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|
Term
| ___ is the process by which the sun makes energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| gasohol and it's limitations |
|
Definition
| 90% gas, 10% alcohol -- normal cars can't run on greater than 10% alcohol |
|
|
Term
| sulfur dioxide is primarily emitted by |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a temperature inversion can do what 3 things |
|
Definition
| decrease vertical mixing, increase photochemical smog, lessen visibility |
|
|
Term
| unpolluted air has a pH of about |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the US clean air act was first passed in |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| aerosols, catalytic converters, rubber production |
|
|
Term
| pollutants that do not go through a smokestack |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which criteria pollutant has not declined since 1970 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why are the world's deserts located at 30 degrees N&S latitudes? |
|
Definition
| large scale sinking air occurs in these regions |
|
|
Term
| nitrogen and oxygen make up whta percent of background air in the atmosphere? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is primarily responsible for the current and projected rise in global mean temperature? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a surface with high albedo will do which: appear dark, reflect energy, destory ozone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what direction does the wind curve in the Southern hemi? and why? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| largest overall contribution to golbal warming is |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 processes that form clouds |
|
Definition
| heating at the planet's surface, condensation of water vapor, expansion of rising air |
|
|
Term
| how many modes of variation are present in milankovitch cycles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organization of petroleum-exporting countries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| petroleum, natural gas, coal |
|
|
Term
| the largest proven reserves of natural gas are in |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ solar heating typically requires few or no moving parts, uses direct sunlight, combines sunlight with a storage medium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| photovoltaic solar energy uses ___ radiation to generate ____. |
|
Definition
| shortwave radiation to generate electrical current |
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|
