Term
| Name four things that increase liver glucose production |
|
Definition
| epinephrine, glucagon, cortisol and growth hormone |
|
|
Term
| Describe how cortisol regulates glucose metabolism |
|
Definition
| Cortisol acts in two ways. It stimulates glucose production in the liver and also blocks the reuptake of glucose to glyogen. |
|
|
Term
| Some of the fatty acids on phospholipids can be cleaved off to make? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Arachidonic acid is then makes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What role does cholesterol have in the lipid bilayer? |
|
Definition
| controls fluidity, precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones. |
|
|
Term
| Cholesterol is most often made in what organ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cholesterol is often synthesized from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thoracic duct of the lymphatic system empties into the |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chylomicrons enter thorugh the intestinal tract into? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| From the venous circulation the chylomicrons are distributed throughout the body to capillaries where it is broken down by?... to form fatty acids to be used by various cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is excessed cholesterol removed from the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| LDL is delivered to the capillaries from the liver and cross through the capillary wall. It enters cells via endocytosis and is broken down by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| HDL is released by the liver as well as (low cholesterol version of HDL). Is the HDL used to deliver or return cholesterol? |
|
Definition
| HDL returns excess cholesterol from the cells. |
|
|
Term
| Cholesterol used by cells for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| VLDL is another pathway for cholesterol delivery that can be converted to fatty acids for cells or also changed by lipoprotein lipase to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| intermediate density lipoproteins are made from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which of the following has the most amount of triglyceride? chylomicrons, vldl, ldl or HDL |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which of the following has the most amount of cholesterol? chylomicrons, vldl, ldl or HDL |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Fatty acids usually have how many carbons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can glycerol be used to make ATP? Yes/No |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lipoprotein lipase breaks down triglycerides to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hormone sensitive lipase stimulated by? 2x things |
|
Definition
| cortisol and epinephrine (under stress and great energy requirements we need high amounts of energy and can get more energy from fatty acids than from glucose) |
|
|
Term
| Fatty acids travel in the blood stream with what transport molecule? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycerol from breakdown of triglycerides can be used for? |
|
Definition
| intermediates used during glycolysis. |
|
|
Term
| Fatty acids can be used for energy production via what process? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Beta oxidation of fatty acids produces three things used for energy production? |
|
Definition
| 1x FADH2, 1x NADH, and 1x Acetyl-CoA for each cycle. The cycle continues until the fatty acid chain is completely used. |
|
|
Term
| In liver two acetyl CoA can be converted to acetoacetic acid and then two ___ and _____ (ketones) |
|
Definition
| Beta - hdyroxybutyric acid and acetone |
|
|
Term
| The tissues can reverse ketoacidosis by creating acetyl CoA from? |
|
Definition
| Beta hydroxybutryic acid and acetone. |
|
|
Term
| Kreb cycle is limited by the amount of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Triglycerides can be formed in what two areas of the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Formation of triglycerides occur from the byproducts of left over fatty acids from beta-oxidation and left over glycerol from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Triglycerides can also be created by excess glycerol and? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What three hormones area released from stress that will increase triglyceride breakdown? |
|
Definition
| Epinephrine and ACTH and Growth hormone |
|
|
Term
| Hormones that increase triglyceride breakdown for energy all work on activating what enzyme? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Do thryoid hormones increase rate of triglyceride breakdown? Yes/No |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Damage to the endothelial cells results in release of ____ which causes many things such as adhesion of monocytes to endothelium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During Atherosclerosis when a myocyte leaves the endothelium and enter the intima, because of cytokines, they are then called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What binds to the macrophages that are stuck in the intima during Atherosclerosis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What hormones are released from macrophage foam cells that contributes to the plaque formation during atherosclerosis |
|
Definition
| growth and inflammatory factors. |
|
|
Term
| Atherosclerosis is the thickening of what layer of an arterial blood vessel? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Most abundant of proteins in blood? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What plasma proteins can contain enzymes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of plasma proteins are involved in immune system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aminoacids can also be in the blood stream as a result of ____ and _____. |
|
Definition
| Catabolism or absorption from GI tract |
|
|
Term
| How many essential aminoacids are there? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Excess aminoacids can be used for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name for process when amino group from an amino acid is transferred to another molecule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During transamination if the amino group is not transferred to another molecule it remains in the body as ____ which is toxic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is excess ammonia removed from the body? |
|
Definition
| converted to urea by the liver. Excreted by kidneys. |
|
|
Term
| Excess ammonia acid is combined with CO2 in the liver to form _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Urea is excreted by the _____________? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name for the process during which amino acids are converted to ketoacids or fatty acids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two hormones can promote break down for protein to alanine which then forms pyruvate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| For energy formation protein can be broken down into alanine and then into ______ which then can enter the kreb cycle. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two hormones decrease catabolism in order to focus on synthesizing proteins? |
|
Definition
| Insulin and growth hormone |
|
|
Term
| What hormone increase catabolism but decrease sythesis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| during Gluconegenesis pyruvic acid is converted into? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pyruvic acid can be made back into amino acidcs which is a Anabolic or catabolic reaction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycolysis of glucose to pyruvic acid is a anabolic or catabolic reaction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between conduction and convection? |
|
Definition
| Conduction refers to heat transfer between objects in contact with each other. While convection is transfer of heat between an object and its environment. |
|
|
Term
| What type of heat loss involves the transfer of heat by infrared electromagnetic (heat) radiation to solid objects |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of heat loss is proportional to temperature difference between skin and object |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of heat loss is NOT proportional to temperature difference between skin and object |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Evaporation is proportional to _______ difference between skin and environment |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What increases evaporation? |
|
Definition
| increased air movement and sweating. |
|
|
Term
| What reduces evaporation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sweating is controlled by what part of the body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What hormones induce sweating? |
|
Definition
| Norepi and EPI from adrenal medulla |
|
|
Term
| High rates of sweating results in loss of what ions / substances? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What hormone is released more of in a person acclimating to a higher temperature environment? |
|
Definition
| ADH - Which increases Na concentrations. |
|
|
Term
| Thermoregulation occurs in what part of the brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Are there more warm receptors or cold receptors in the hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the peripheral there are more cold or warm receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sensory information regarding heat/cold enters the hypothalamus in the ____ section. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the three mechanism by which the body can regulate temperature. |
|
Definition
1. Muscles - shivering
2. Blood vessels : Open or close to bring blood to surface for heat loss.
3. Sweat Glands - sweating. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how the body would regulate a body temperature that is high |
|
Definition
| Heat sensors on the peripheral send information to the posterior hypothalamus which then is interpreted in the thermo-regulation center located in the anterior hypothalamus. Then this information is sent back to posterior hypothalamus which then activates the vasomotor center in the medulla. The vasodilatory center is activated and inhibits the vasoconstricitve center. Thereby dilating peripheral vessels and increasing heath loss. |
|
|
Term
| How can breathing effect heat loss? |
|
Definition
| Increase the depth of respiration then you increase heat loss. |
|
|
Term
| How does piloerection contribute to minimizing heat loss? |
|
Definition
| Sympathetic system stimulates the erection of hair follicles which creates a barrier at the level of the root to prevent heat loss. (Not much of a factor for humans) |
|
|
Term
| primary motor centers for shivering are found in the? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary motor centers stimulate _____ in muscles to oscillate. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chemical thermogenesis is indirectly started because of sympathetic stimuli. But it is directly initiated from this hormone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain what happens during chemical thermogenesis? |
|
Definition
| Liver and skeletal muscles increase glycogenolysis. There is an increase in the metabolic rate of most cells. The idea is to have a reaction which releases more heat than it forms ATP. |
|
|
Term
| Another mechanism to create heat other than shivering is with your thyroid. The hypothalamus releases ____ which travels to the pituitary. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The anterior pituitary hormone can contribute to thermogenesis in its own way by releasing ______ which stimulates the _____ to release |
|
Definition
| Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) to stimulate the thyroid to release thyroxine |
|
|
Term
| An increase in thyroxine results in increase _____ & _____ & _______ |
|
Definition
| increase ATP, Increase Heat, Increase O2 use. |
|
|
Term
| Since infants cannot shiver or sweat they can increase heat by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| True of False: Brown fat lipolysis results in Heat and ATP release |
|
Definition
| FALSE. Brown adipose fat lipolysis results only in heat production. |
|
|
Term
| Explain two mechanisms that causes elderly people to be more likely to be cold? |
|
Definition
1. Less blood flow to peripheral causes colder extremities.
2. Less ability to generate heat |
|
|
Term
| Why do elderly people tend to overheat more? |
|
Definition
| Elderly people have less sweat glands. |
|
|
Term
| Lipolysis of brown fat is stimulated by? |
|
Definition
| Sympathetic nervous system. |
|
|
Term
| Abnormalities in the brain that can cause a fever are ______ and _________ |
|
Definition
| tumors and brain surgery near hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| substances that effect thermoregulation in the brain are called |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Endogenous pyrogens can also effect the thermoregulatory center of the brain. Such endogenous pyrogens are |
|
Definition
| Macrophages, Interleukin, Tumor necrosis factor, and phagocytotic cells. |
|
|
Term
| Think of the brain thermoregulation center as a thermostat. If a pyrogen resets that thermostat to a higher degree than the body will interpret that it is cold and begin doing everything it can to raise the temp to the set point on the thermostat. It will do this in what ways? |
|
Definition
1. vasoconstrictions
2. pilerection
3. epi secretion
4. shivering |
|
|
Term
| How long does it take the body to reach a set point that is higher than normal because of pyrogens? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does the body take longer to accomodate to higher set points or lower? |
|
Definition
| Higher set points. If the temperature set point is higher than normal then the body thinks its cold and needs to start actively raising the heat. This process takes longer because it is ACTIVE. versus if the set point was lowered than it would be relatively easier to passively 1. vasodilate and 2. sweat to reduce body temp to the lower set point. |
|
|
Term
| If there is a high humidity then what heat loss mechanism is effected negatively? |
|
Definition
| Evaporation. IT will not work. |
|
|
Term
| what kind of temperature extreme will stimulates blood clotting and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Hyperthermia or hypothermia |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dizziness, abdominal pain, vomiting, confusion/delirium, loss of consciousness |
|
|
Term
| Malignant hyperthermia is caused by? |
|
Definition
| Anesthetics. The person has a genetic disorder of their ryanidine receptors which do not fully close causing a high er concentration of intracellular calcium. Increase intracellular calclium causes increased contraction of muscles which need ATP. Also exhausts the Active Ca pumps (which use ATP) trying to remove the Ca from the cystol to Sarcoplasmic reticulum. As more and more energy is expelled to keep up with all the muscle contractions and Ca pumping the body temp elevates exponentially to fatal levels. |
|
|
Term
| What is the treatment of malignant hyperthermia? How does it work? |
|
Definition
| dantrolene sodium administration. Works by blocking the excitation / contraction coupling. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name amine from which dopamine and thyroid hormones dervied from |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the steroid hormones secreted from adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
| coritso, aldosterone, androgens |
|
|
Term
| Name the steroid hormones derived from testes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Ovaries release what steroid hormones |
|
Definition
| estrogen and porgesterone |
|
|
Term
| Kidney's release what steroid hormones |
|
Definition
| 1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol |
|
|
Term
| The corpus luteum releases what steroid hormones |
|
Definition
| estrogen and progesterone |
|
|
Term
| Which hormone is most protein bounded? |
|
Definition
| thyroid hormones 99% bounded to protein |
|
|
Term
| Whats the importance of how bounded a hormone is to a protein? |
|
Definition
| More bounded a hormone is to a protein than the less likely it will be removed in the kidneys and the slower the metabolism utilizing that hormone. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the process by which epinephrine and glucagon activates glycogen breakdown to glucose |
|
Definition
| Epinephrine and glucagon causes increase prodcution of cAMP via metabotropic receptors. The cAMP activates kinase. The activated kinase now can phosphorylate glycogen phosphorylate to activate it to breakdown glycogen to glucose. At the same time the active form of kinase can also phosphorylate glycogen synthase which results in it being deactivated. |
|
|
Term
| How does insulin effect glycogen synthase and the relationship of glycogen/glucose. |
|
Definition
| Insulin changes in the inactivated phosphorylated glycogen synthase to be DEPHOSPHORYLATED. This activates the glycogen synthase to become active. Now glucose is changed into glycogen thereby lowering blood glucose. |
|
|
Term
| Which one is the active version of phosphorylase? A or B? |
|
Definition
| Phosphorylase A is active therefore it is has a phosphate attached. If it is active than it will increase blood glucose by breaking down glycogen |
|
|
Term
| Insulin works in two ways to decrease blood glucose level by? |
|
Definition
1. decreasing liver glucose production by activating glycogen synthase
2. increasing muscle and adipose glucose uptake and usage. |
|
|
Term
| glucose + 6 02 will result in |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does insulin decrease liver production of glucose? |
|
Definition
| Insulin activates synthase phosphorylase to dephosphorylate glycogen sythase. The dephosphorylated version of glycogen synthase is the active form and will take glucose and make glycogen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| After strenous exercise the body needs to replenish all the depleted ATP, Creatine phosphate, glucose ect.. To replace energy we need O2 because O2 is the final electron carrier in the Electron transport chain. Therefore to get the most energy for replenishment our bodies utilize this system. During the alactacid oxygen debt period the most immediate sources such as creatine phosphate, ATP and O2 to the myoglobin. Then the remaining volume of oxygen needed to replenish / reset the body is used for clearing out lactic acid. Lactic acid from the muscles is removed in the blood to the kidney's, heart and liver. At these organs lactic acid in the presence of oxygen is converted to pyruvic acid. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how lactic acid can be removed from the body |
|
Definition
1. oxidation of lactic acid to pyruvate by well oxygenated muscle cells. (liver/heart/kidneys)
2. Via cori cycle which converts lactic acid to glucose via glucconeogensis in the liver |
|
|
Term
| What is the importance of lactic acid during anaerobic metabolism |
|
Definition
| During strenous activity glucose is broken down to pyruvate. If there is not enough oxygen available this pyruvate is then broken down to lactic acid. Lactic acid is beneficial because it regenerates NAD+ for use during glycolysis. |
|
|
Term
| Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates |
|
Definition
| pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| Is gluconeogenesis anabolic or catabolic? |
|
Definition
| anabolic. Making glucose with multiple different substances. |
|
|
Term
| Difference between transamination and deamination? |
|
Definition
| Transamination is removing the amino group and TRANSFERING IT TO something. While deamination is removing the amino group and not transfering it. |
|
|
Term
| what GTP activated integral protein changes inactive cyclic cAMP to active cAMP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Phospholipid second messenger system releases? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Phospholipase C released from cell membrane phospholipid second messenger system causes the release of what two secondary messangers? |
|
Definition
| IP3 and PKC. IP3 which then opens IP3 Ca channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum. That causes release of Ca. PKC binds to cell membrane Ca channels and also lets in Ca. |
|
|
Term
| In A G-protein that decreases cAMP; the alpha subunit would inactivate adenylate cyclase by activating what enzyme? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| insulin binds to insulin receptors that have what group directly attached? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Epi and norepi that act on alpha 1 recetpors will result in? |
|
Definition
| Inactivation of cAMP by phosphodiesterase |
|
|
Term
| Epi and Norepi that act on Beta receptors will result in? |
|
Definition
| Increase production of cAMP by adenylyl cyclase. Increase cAMP will result in activation of more kinase which will activate ion channels and other enzymes. |
|
|
Term
| Epi and Norepi that act on ALPHA 2 will result in? |
|
Definition
| Via secondary messangers will open Ca channels via IP3 and Protein Kinase C (PKC) |
|
|
Term
| pituitary gland also known as the? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| posterior lobe of the pituitary releases? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are the hormones created versus released for everything associated with the pituitary gland. |
|
Definition
| The hormones are made in the hypothalamus in the various nuclei! not in the pituitary gland! The hormones are released into the axons and released in the pituitary where it enters the various capillary beds. |
|
|
Term
| The paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus creates what hormone? Where is it released? |
|
Definition
| oxytocin. released in the pituitary. |
|
|
Term
| supraoptic nuclei found in the? creates what hormone? |
|
Definition
| Found in the hypothalamus and creates ADH. Released in the posterior hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| ADH increases the permeability of what part in the kidney |
|
Definition
| distal tubule and collecting duct of kidney nephron for water reabsorption (less water in urine) by adding water channels (aquaporins) to tubule |
|
|
Term
| Role of oxytocin results in what kind of effects on women |
|
Definition
| stimulate breast milk, stimulates smooth muscle contraction during delivery, |
|
|
Term
| The largest part of the anterior pituitary is called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The hypothalamus has nuclei that also releases regulatory and inhibiting hormones that influence whether or not the anterior pituitary hormones will release. They are secreted at the end of the nuclei axons into the? |
|
Definition
| 1st capillary bed known as the primary plexus. From there they are delivered to the anterior pituitary where they act on it and influence whether or not they release their own active hormone. |
|
|
Term
| The hormones of the anterior pituitary will only be released by? They are released into? |
|
Definition
| The anterior pituitary hormones are only released in response to inhibitory and regulatory hormones from the nuclei in the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary releases its hormone into the 2 capillary bed and then to the systemic system. |
|
|
Term
| In the anterior pituitary there are 6 hormones released from 5 kinds of cell. What two hormones are released from the same cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name that describes hormones that turn on endocrine glands or support the function of other organs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Names the 6x types of hormones from anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH (thyrotropin)
2. adrenocorticotropic hormone, ACTH (corticotropin)
3. follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH
4. luteinizing hormone, LH
5. prolactin, PRL
6. growth hormone, GH (somatotropin) |
|
|
Term
| Growth hormone is greatest during ____ and __________ |
|
Definition
| sleep and strenuous activity |
|
|
Term
| Most important contributions to growth are from ____ And _________ |
|
Definition
| growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I) |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits growth hormone secretion? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What food source will increase growth hormone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Growth hormone acute effects include? 3x |
|
Definition
1. Increase lipolysis. More fatty acids used for ATP production
2. Decrease glucose uptake in muscles
3. Increase gluconeogenesis. |
|
|
Term
| Growth hormone tissue effects include? 4x |
|
Definition
1. increase
2. increase protein synthesis
3. increase cell size
4. decrease catabolism |
|
|
Term
| Growth hormone in the liver influences the release of? |
|
Definition
| insulin like growth factor 1 |
|
|
Term
| Insulin like growth factor I: |
|
Definition
1. Bone: increases the bone length by stimulating chondrocytes at the epiphyseal plates
2. Increase diameter (thicken) bone
3. increase growth and size
4. rapid growth in early childhood
5. after puberty increases muscle growth (anabolism). Increase amino acid uptake and protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| Growth hormone also has negative feed back that acts on? |
|
Definition
| anterior pituitary and growth hormone inhibitory hormones in hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
| The negative feedback mechanism of the insulin like growth factor I causes |
|
Definition
| only inhibits the anterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| What inhibits growth hormone? |
|
Definition
1. excess GH
2. excess Insulin like growth factor 1
3. aging
4. Diet high in glucose
5. corisol |
|
|
Term
| Name for this abnormality: no bone lengthening, increase size of skull-lower jaw, feet, forehead, nose. Increase osteoblast activity, increase thickening of soft tissue like liver,kidney, tongue |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. dwarfism - children
2. panhypotiuitarism in adults |
|
|
Term
| As a result of GH deficiency; panhypopituitarism can occur which results in: |
|
Definition
1. hypothyroidism
2. decrease glucorticoids
3. decrease LH and FSH |
|
|
Term
| How does aging effect growth hormone and IGF1? |
|
Definition
| decreases amounts of both. |
|
|
Term
| GH secretion is regulated by ___ and ____ which is released from? |
|
Definition
| GH secretion regulated by GH Regulator hormone and GH inhibitory hormone created in the hypothalamus. GH is released in the anterior pituitary. |
|
|
Term
| prolactin for women cause? |
|
Definition
| in females, works with other hormones to stimulate mammary gland development; initiate milk secretion and maintenance of milk production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secreted from the pars intermedia of the anterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| Dopamine can inhibit what pituitary hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| C-cells also known as parafollicular cells are responsible for secretion of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| two hormones produced by thyroid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 90% of hormones released from the thyroid are? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T4/T3 ratio in blood there is more T4 or T3 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What performs negative feedback on TSH secretion |
|
Definition
| T3 negative feedback on TSH secretion |
|
|
Term
| All thyroid hormones are made from the breakdown of what protein? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thyroglobulin is brought into the thyroid by a process known as? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| tyrosine is recycled in the ? to create more thyroglobulin |
|
Definition
| tyrosine is recycled in the endoplasmic reticulum and then sent to golgi apparatus |
|
|
Term
| Iodine for thyroid synthesis is brought into the cell by? |
|
Definition
| Iodine / Na co-transport via Iodine pumps |
|
|
Term
| How are thyroid hormones transported in the blood? |
|
Definition
| 99% bounded to plasma proteins |
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the anterior pituitary to release the TSH? |
|
Definition
| hypothalamus releases Thyroid regulator hormone |
|
|
Term
| 5x things that will decrease TRH secretion |
|
Definition
1. high T4 and T3
2. emotions / anxiety
3. glucorticoids
4. dopamine and somatostatin
5. Heat |
|
|
Term
| Increase T3 and T4 will result in |
|
Definition
1. increase metabolic rate
2.increase ATP usage
3. increase O2 usage
4. increase Na-K pump activity
5. increase heat
6. increase gluconeogenesis
7. increase protein catabolism
8. increase lipolysis and then gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| How does increase T3 and T4 effect the autnomic nervous system |
|
Definition
| increase anxiety, increase effect on beta adrenergic receptors in heart, decrease smooth muscle, decrease adipose tissue. |
|
|
Term
| If you are tired then what might your T3 and T4 levels be like? low or high? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Most inhibitory feedback for thyroid hormones is T3 and T4 acting on _________ some inhibition does occur on _________ |
|
Definition
| T3 and T4 mainly inhibits Anterior pituitary secretion of TSH. But it also has some effect on hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
| Grave's disease is an autoimmune system. What happens? |
|
Definition
| There is artificial binding to the receptor sites for TSH at the thyroid gland. That stimulates the thyroid to release excess T3 and T4. |
|
|
Term
| protruding eyes of pathological conditions of the thyroid is directly related to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thyroid storm may result in |
|
Definition
1. altered mental status
2. tachycardia |
|
|
Term
| What is hashimoto's thyroidosis |
|
Definition
| An autoimmune disorder. Antibodies are made that destroy areas of the thyroid gland. Results in decrease T3 and T4 production. |
|
|
Term
| cretinism in young people results in? |
|
Definition
A form of hypothyroidism
1. mental retardation
2. short statures
3. slow motor development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A form of hypothyroidism
1. dry skin
2. hairlessness
3. weakness
4. low body temp
5. slow reflexes
6. bagginess under eyes
7. Swelling of the face. |
|
|
Term
| Grave's disease is an autoimmune system. What happens? |
|
Definition
| There is artificial binding to the receptor sites for TSH at the thyroid gland. That stimulates the thyroid to release excess T3 and T4. |
|
|
Term
| protruding eyes of pathological conditions of the thyroid is directly related to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thyroid storm may result in |
|
Definition
1. altered mental status
2. tachycardia |
|
|
Term
| What is hashimoto's thyroidosis |
|
Definition
| An autoimmune disorder. Antibodies are made that destroy areas of the thyroid gland. Results in decrease T3 and T4 production. |
|
|
Term
| cretinism in young people results in? |
|
Definition
A form of hypothyroidism
1. mental retardation
2. short statures
3. slow motor development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A form of hypothyroidism
1. dry skin
2. hairlessness
3. weakness
4. low body temp
5. slow reflexes
6. bagginess under eyes
7. Swelling of the face. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| low dietary level of iodine |
|
|
Term
| Process of goiter development |
|
Definition
| Since low levels of T3 and T4 from a lack of iodine in the diet we have no negative feedback of the system from the hypothalamus down. Increase TSH results in increase in size of the follicle in the thyroid gland. |
|
|
Term
| Name the three layers of the cortex starting from the outer layer to inner |
|
Definition
1. Zona glomerulosa: Aldosterone
2. Zona fasciculata: coritsol and androgens
3. Zona reticularis: crotisol and androgens. PRIMARILY ANDROGENS |
|
|
Term
| Where are catecholamines created? |
|
Definition
| in the medulla of the cortex. |
|
|
Term
| The cells in the medulla that create epi and norepi are called |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tumor in the medulla of the adrenal gland that causes hypersecretion of catecholamines. Can be fatal in circumstances of pregnancy and surgery. |
|
|
Term
| The big difference between short-term adaptation for stress/alarm compared to long-term (resistance phase) for the sympathetic system is? |
|
Definition
| During the short phase the body is actively doing everything it can produce energy and action. The things most immediately available are the things wired in the body. So short term the heart rate and contractility is increased, ATP used from glycolysis, glycogen immediately broken down, decrease blood to kidney and digestive supply. When long term begins kicking in that system is doing everything that would other wise contradict what short term started. So in long term the body turns of glycogen formation, secretes ACTH, replenishes all the glucose being actively used by starting gluconeogenesis, and start using amino acids and fats for long term energy repletion |
|
|
Term
| How does aldosterone act intracellular on the principle cells in the collecting ducts? |
|
Definition
| It acts directly on influencing the mRNA to create proteins that act on active ion transport of sodium to create a gradient to remove sodium from the tubules and place more of it in the blood to create a gradient that favors water reabsorption back to the blood. |
|
|
Term
| adrenal androgens have more of an effect on women or men? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Term for measuring heat given off from body? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Define indirect calorimetry |
|
Definition
| Instead of measuring heat directly off body we can measure metabolism by the rate of oxygen utilization. The more oxygen being used then the more energy reactions are occurring. |
|
|
Term
| How does the human body adapt to colder environments? |
|
Definition
| by increase metabolic rate |
|
|
Term
| Explain process of cortisol release |
|
Definition
| The hypothalamus is stimulated by stress or low blood glucose to release Corticotrpoin releasing hormone. The hypothalamus also releases CRH on its own in a type of circadian rhythm which starts building up concentration of cortisol in waves beginning at midnight and peaking around 12pm before it begins to decrease in waves. The CRH is then released into the first capillary bed which carries it to the anterior pituitary and stimulates it to release ACTH. ACTH is released into the blood and travels the the adrenal gland. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex at the fasiculate to release glucocorticoids. 90% of these glucorticoids are cortisol. |
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of cortisol when released in high concentrations? |
|
Definition
(Why would you release large amounts of cortisol? HIGH Stress...usually along with EPI..high stress..flight or fight..apply this when thinking of the answer)
In the cells Cortisol will:
-decrease protein synthesis (which requires ATP) and instead focus on mobilizing fuels for energy. IT will obtain energy through multiple pathways such as protein catabolism, increase Beta oxidation of fatty acids, glucose will be spent making ATP so glucose levels will fall, the liver will be stimulated to make more energy anyway it can (liver can perform gluconeogenesis and make energy directly from amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol), the liver will also increase amino acid uptake, increase glycogen storage (now the body is focus on long term survival and will put aside reserves of energy in the form of glycogen for back up, b/c right now the body is using other pathways which are providing an amplitude of energy sources), liver will also need to increase protein synthesis in order to provide enzymes and mechanisms to perform all these actions, in adipose tissues there will be an increase in lipolysis in order to keep providing fatty acids and glycerol for gluconeogenesis in the liver, hormone sensitive lipase is also produced in larger volumes in order to break apart the fatty acids, there will be increase protein catabolism in the skeletal muscles to provide sources of energy, there will be a decrease in protein synthesis in the skeletal muscles to conserve energy, the bones will also be inhibited from bone formation and osteoblast activity in order to conserve energy for more important life processes. |
|
|
Term
| What is gluccocorticoid's effect on the immune system? |
|
Definition
| (Think of steroid effects on transplant patients long term and preventing rejection) Gluccorticoids are released in higher concentrations as a result of stress to something that is harmful and/or taxing on the body. As a result it has an anti-inflammatory response which helps keep the immune system under control. It will decrease neutrophils, decrease phagocytosis, stabilize lysosomal membrane in phagocytic cells, decrease IL-1 from macrophages, decrease temp, decrease prostaglandins. |
|
|
Term
| What is gluccocorticoids effect on CNS |
|
Definition
| irritability and anxiety, short term memory loss. (Think of steroids effect on patients long term from transplants) |
|
|
Term
| Explain difference in short term stress/crisis management involving glucose and long-term stress/crisis managing glucose? |
|
Definition
| Stress/crisis management involves large concentrations of epinephrine and glucocorticoid secretion. In short term there is large amounts of glucose released for immediate use. Glycogen is broken down to glucose from the liver/muscles to the point where the need far exceeds the supply. Energy is key to surviving any crisis. At this point the body needs a more substantial and stable supply of energy sources. The long-term management of the crisis/stress now transitions to gluconeogenesis in the liver which creates energy sources from non-carbohydrates. The body now does all it can to obtain energy from fatty acids, amino acids, glycerol and protein breakdown. At the same time as it starts getting back more energy it starts siphoning off excess glucose/energy potential and storing it as glycogen in the muscles/liver so it has a reservoir in the event gluconeogenesis fails. So short term lots of glucose is used and glycogen is broken down. However long term the body focuses on getting more energy from non-carbohydrate sources. At the same time when it can, the liver and body, will begin storing glucose again the muscles and liver so it replenishes its fast stores. |
|
|
Term
| What gland is both endocrine and exocrine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What portion of the pancreas secretes the digestive enzymes? |
|
Definition
| Exocrine portion! 90% is exocrine function |
|
|
Term
| What portion of the pancreas contributes to hormones? |
|
Definition
| the islets of langerhans. (10% of pancreas function) |
|
|
Term
| What are the four types of hormones released from the pancreas? |
|
Definition
1. insulin
2. glucagon
3. Pancreatic polypeptide
4. Somatostatin |
|
|
Term
| If insulin works on beta receptors then what type of cells in the pancreatic islets create insulin>? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain why insulin released from beta cells of pancreas? |
|
Definition
| Glucose at high levels in the plasma are facilitated into the intramembrane of a cell via glut 2 channels. Inside the cell the glucose is converted to energy (ATP). ATP acts on a K channel and closes it. This results in a depolarization which activates voltage gated calcium channels and causes an AP which results in high Ca levels and those causes vesicles of insulin to be released into the plasma. |
|
|
Term
| Why is insulin's half life so short? |
|
Definition
| because it is not bounded to proteins. IT exists in a free form while it circulates in the body. |
|
|
Term
| Insulin and its effect on the body |
|
Definition
| The body needs insulin to help bring glucose into the cells to be used during glycolyis. As long as there is enough insulin then there should be enough glucose entering cells. The glucose needs to be inside the cells to be effective. So inheritantly the blood glucose will decrease. Insulin also will take the high blood glucose levels not only move more into the cells but also manage blood glucose levels by increasing glycogen synthesis. While the body is using glucose as a mechanism for energy it will take advantage of this easy source of energy and begin focusing its easy energy on synthesizing more fats and proteins. If its increasing FA and Proteins then it obviously isn't breaking either down otherwise its counterproductive. If there's glucose in the cells for energy then the liver doesn't need gluconeogenesis. Think of glucose availability in the cells as an easy source of energy made possible by insulin allowing glucose to be transported across the membrane on insulin mediated glucose facilitated channels. The body acts like a doomsday planner. Its doing more than one thing at any given time and creating backups and reserves for the unknown future. |
|
|
Term
| glucagon is released from the ____ cells of the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain difference in alpha and beta adrenergic stimulation of alpha and beta cells on pancreas |
|
Definition
| Beta stimulation results in increase beta cell production of insulin which allows glucose to enter the cells and become the primary pathway for energy. Alpha stimulation resulting in alpha cells secretion of glucagon from the pancreas results in high levels of glucose release from the liver via glycogenolysis. |
|
|
Term
| During strenuous activity what cells are stimulated more of in the pancreas? |
|
Definition
| Norepinephrine will stimulate more alpha cells than beta and result in more glucagon production. The goal is the ensure sufficent glucose availability in the blood for brain and muscles for high energy needs. It will not be enough and therefore fatty acids, amino acids, glyerol ect.. will also begin to be broken down for energy as well. So ketones are possible and beta oxidation increases. Heavy workouts require large amounts of ATP. Glucose as we know from past classes is only going to give you enough energy for less than seconds to minutes. Glucagon therefore mobilizes all fuels sources. |
|
|
Term
On the "Approximate Rates of Insulin &
Glucagon Secretion at Different Blood Glucose Levels" powerpoint slide shows us what relationship? |
|
Definition
| The graph shows us the relationship between glucagon and insulin secretion from the pancreas. The body always wants to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis for the body in relation to glucose is 90 mg/dl in the blood. At this level there is a very small but equal amount of glucagon and insulin production. If you go in either direction of the graph then there is a sharp increase of just glucagon or insulin while the other stays at zero. The idea is to also try and negative feedback the system to 90 mg/dl. So if glucose levels are 120mg/dl then there is a large increase of insulin while glucagon stays at nearly zero. |
|
|
Term
| Blood glucose levels can be increased through these four hormones which all act on the liver to activate gluconeogensis |
|
Definition
1. Growth hormone
2. glucagon
3. epinephrine
4. glucocorticoids |
|
|
Term
| The parathryoid is made up of how many glands? What are the two types of cells made up of the parathyroid? |
|
Definition
| 4 glands and made up of chief cells and oxyphils |
|
|
Term
| There's two systems in the body that are the effectors that control Ca levels. They are? Briefly how do they work? |
|
Definition
| The kidneys and bones are the two effectors which will change Ca levels. The kidneys work either by reabsorbing more Ca or excreting more Ca into the urine. The bones can contribute calclium to the blood from osteoclast breakdown of the bone structure. Osteoblast add Ca to the bone thereby decreasing blood levels |
|
|
Term
| High blood levels of Ca will stimulate what area of the body to decrease the Ca levels? |
|
Definition
| The parafollicular C cells in the thryoid will respond to high Ca levels and release calcitonin that will act on the kidneys and bone to decrease Ca serum levels |
|
|
Term
| Low blood levels of Ca will stimulate what are of the body to increase the serum Ca levels? |
|
Definition
| The parathyroid gland will be stimulated and release parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid will act on the kidenys and bone to increase Ca serum levels. |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship of Serum Ca levels and Na permeability? |
|
Definition
| High serum Ca levels from hyperthyroidism will result in decrease Na permeability. If Na is less permeable then muscle and nerve cells become less excitable and slow. CNS is then slow too. If low serum Ca levels than we see an increase in Na permeability and results in an increase in excitability of nerves and muscles. Possible for tetany. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the relationship of melatonin and pineal gland. |
|
Definition
| The pineal gland secretes melatonin. The pineal gland is located in the third ventricle. Melatonin is made from serotonin. It is helpful for sleepiness. Therefore it is safe to say the pineal gland will secrete more melatonin when light is less intense . |
|
|
Term
| Site of testosterone production |
|
Definition
| interstitial (Leydig) cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Whats the difference between spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis? |
|
Definition
Spermatogenesis is the process during which sperm is formed in the seminiferrous tubules of the testes. Spermiogenesis is the final stage of spermatogenesis, which sees the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile spermatozoa.
http://www.majordifferences.com/2013/06/difference-between-spermatogenesis-and.html#.U7VpC_ldWSo |
|
|
Term
| Explain steps to testosterone formation |
|
Definition
| The hypothalamus releases GnRH that travels through the first capillary bed to the anterior pituitary. In the Anterior pituitary the GnRH stimulates the release of Lutenizing hormone (LH). LH travels to the testes and acts on the interstitial cells to release testosterone. |
|
|
Term
| Explain steps to mature sperm devlelopment |
|
Definition
The hypothalamus release GnRH into the first capillary pool that circulates down to the anterior pituitary where it stimulates release of FSH. FSH released into the blood and acts on the testes. In the testes FSH acts on the siminiferrous tubules that contain sustentacular cells. These cells do three things:
1. secrete androgen binding proteins
2. secrete inhibin to stop FSH release
3. stimulates spermatosis to mature sperm. |
|
|
Term
| Around what age doe the testes drop into the scrotal sack? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Female hormones are produced in the? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the mitosis of one spermatogonium results in the production of how many spermatozoa |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between meioisis of the primary oocyte and primary spermatocyte |
|
Definition
| The primary oocyte splits into unequal secondary oocytes. One of the secondary oocyte has a dispropotionally large amount of cytsol. Unlike in primary spermatocyte which splits during meiosis into equal halves. |
|
|
Term
| The oocyte does not mature until _____ when what hormone is released? |
|
Definition
| during puberty lutenizing hormone released |
|
|
Term
| During ovulation the secondary oocyte is under going meiosis two but cannot complete meiosis two unless what occurs? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the secondary oocyte is released during? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain process of ovulation |
|
Definition
| Primary oocytes are stimulated by FSH and increase in size (mature) to secondary follicles and then into mature follicles known as tertiary follicles(preovulatory follicles). The ovulation is induced by increase of LH and results in the release of the oocyte that then becomes a secondary oocyte. |
|
|
Term
| What hormone helps induce the actual ovulation of the secondary oocyte? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Corpus luteum is formed during what stage of the female reproductive phase? |
|
Definition
| During the luteal phase after ovulation. |
|
|
Term
| Progesterone is created from maturation of the ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Name the three phases of the female uterine cycle and describe how it relates to the endometrium and hormone secretions. |
|
Definition
Menses - proliferative phase - secretive phase.
During the menses phase there is a destruction of the functional zone of the endometrium due to vasoconstriction. This is followed by the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle when the endometrial lining is repaired in direct relationship to estrogen levels being increased. During the secretory phase of the uterine cycle the development of secretory glands results in progresterone, estrogen and inhibin release. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the steps involved in the release of progesterone, estrogen, inhibin. |
|
Definition
| There is pulse stimulation of the hypothalamus which releases GnRH in a pulsatory function. The GnRH is released into the first capillary pool and floats on down to the anterior pituitary. In the anterior pituitary the FSH is released FIRST! LH takes longer to be secreted. FSH develops the follicles in the ovaries. Devleloping follicles release estrogen and inhibin. During this time it is the follicular phase. During the follicular stage the follicles develop. At the same time uterine cycle is undergoing menses and the endometrial wall is being destroyed. Estrogen does positive feedback on the hypothalamus for more GnRH and LH. So more estrogen as a result of more FSH and LH. More FSH means more maturation of the follicle during which time the endometrial wall is proliferated (uterine cycle known as proliferation). Inhibiin will inhibit FSH at the same time. There is then a very large rise in LSH level and peaks at the same time as estrogen which results in ovulation and formation of a corpus luteum which then marks the beginning phase of the secretory phase of the uterine cycle during which secretory vesicles are added to the endometrial wall. The corpus luteum begins to mature and as it does the endometrial wall is rebuilt and secretory phase begins during which progesterone is released. |
|
|
Term
| The basal body temperature during the female reproductive system is highest at what phase of the uterine cycle? |
|
Definition
| secretory phase when secretion of endometrial clands are releasing progresterone, estrogen and inhibin. |
|
|
Term
| The ovulation and maturation of the corpus luteum is a result of what hormone increase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Explain menopause and what runs out? |
|
Definition
| Menopause occurs when there are no more primordial follice cells to under go the reproductive cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Why is there an increase in LH and FSH during and after menopause? |
|
Definition
| IF there are no more follicles than there is no production of inhibin which acts as a negative feed back inhibitor to the FSH production and there is no progesterone which negatively feedback inhibits the hypothalamus from releasing GnRH |
|
|
Term
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is released after what happens? How long until levels rise and can be detected? |
|
Definition
| AFter the blastocyte adheres to the uterine wall it begins producing HCG around 7-8 days later. |
|
|
Term
| During the duration of pregnancy describe the levels of progesterone, estrogen and HCG |
|
Definition
| HCG rises fast as a result of blastocyte adhesion to the uterine wall. But it falls to a lower stable level after 28 weeks. During this entire time progesterone and estrogen rise at equal levels until the end of the pregnancy around 38 weeks. During this time estrogen rises and progresterone decreases. Its thought that progesterone inhibits contraction while estrogen increases contraction. |
|
|
Term
| Glut 2 facilitated carrier proteins are found primarily in what two organs/areas? Does this carrier protein rely on insulin to be activated? |
|
Definition
1. Liver
2. Beta cells of the pancreas
Not insulin dependent!! |
|
|
Term
| What Glut# is the primary means of glucose facilitated carrier transport in the brain? Why? |
|
Definition
| GLUT3 is the primary passive carrier protein in the brain because it has the highest affinity for glucose uptake which makes sense since to get glucose into the neuronal cells it has to first cross the capillary membrane into the interstitial fluid and then from there enter the cells via the GLUT3 proteins. GLUT3 carrier proteins are 5x more effective than GLUT1,2,4. |
|
|
Term
| What is the relationship of Na and Ca and how it effects the body? |
|
Definition
| Ca is transported out of the cell by active Ca pumps but also by COUNTER active transport with Na!! Na is more concentrated outside the cell and flows into the cell because its a lower concentration gradient. AS a result of this gradient Ca is transported out of the cell against its concentration via secondary active transport because of the passive movement of Na. So if we disrupt the Na gradient and have more Na inside the cell (more permeability of Na in the cell) then there is no energy to actively remove Ca. If there's more Ca in the cell..EXCITABILITY and Tetanus. |
|
|
Term
| What two hormones play a role in the reproductive system for both the male and female? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of LH and FSH in males and females? |
|
Definition
| GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of LH and FSH in the pituitary. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the mechanism for how epinephrine and glucagon effect glycogen / glucose metabolism in the liver |
|
Definition
Epinephrine is released during periods of high stress and fast energy need. As a result they act on the liver in a way to ensure the highest amount of glucose will be readily available. Glucagon acts as an antagonist to insulin. It is released by the alpha cells in the pancreas in response to low levels of glucose. When released the glucagon will bind to glucagon receptors on the liver. Both glucagon and epinephrine both act on metabotropic proteins. These G proteins when activated, activate adenylate cyclase and increase levels of intracellular cAMP. So although epi and glucagon may not always be released at the same time; they do have one major thing in common, they increase cAMP levels. The cAMP is needed to bind and activate Protein Kinase A. Kinase enzymes always phosphoyrlate substances with ATP. So this kinase enzyme (protein Kinase A) phosphorylates Glycogen Synthase A and turns it to Glycogen Synthase B which is the inactive form. The body wants more glucose, not glycogen. So inactivating glycogen synthase is good. The Protein kinase A also activates phosphorylase kinase which then phosphorlyase's glycogen phosphorylase b to its active form glycogen phosphorylase A. Activated glycogen phosphorylase will break down glycogen to make glucose.
1. Glycogen Synthase - "Synthesizing" glycogen.
2. Glycogen Phosphorylase needs a phosphate to "Lyse" glycogen to glucose. |
|
|
Term
| Explain how aldosterone works in the kidneys |
|
Definition
| Aldosterone is a mineralcorticosteroid synthesized from cholesterol in the outer section of the adrenal cortex known as the zona glomerulosa. It is secreted into the blood where it acts on the kidneys at the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons. Its main goal is to raise BP as a result of conserving Na in the blood and releasing potassium in the urine. Water follows Na. So if Na is conserved in the blood then so will water. More water in the blood then more blood volume. (higher BP). At a cellular level the aldoesterone enters the principle cells in the kidney's collecting ducts and distal tubules. In the cells aldosterone binds to SPECIFIC free floating receptors known as mineralcorticoid receptors. They have a binding site that only fits with aldosterone. NOT Cortisol. One binded it activates the mRNA in the cell to produce enzymes that activate numerous Na/K pumps on the blood side of the membrane to work faster. Remember for every two K that is brought in, then 3x Na are released. So these Na/K pumps send 3 Na to the blood (Na being reabsorbed) and 2 K go into the cell. The mRNA also makes proteins. So it makes Na channels that are specific to Na and places them on the tubular side of the cell membrane (Where the urine is) So that it can reabsorb Na from the tubular fluid (urine) into the cell and hopefully then the Na will be put back into the blood by the Na/K pumps on the blood side. There are also K pumps on the urine side that excrete K into the urine in order to avoid too much K building up in the cell and the Na/K pump not working. |
|
|
Term
| Explain role of ACTH and relationship between the adrenal gland and the pituitary gland |
|
Definition
| ACTH is released from the anterior pituitary gland in response to the hypothalamus releasing cortico-releasing hormone. The hypothalamus often releases CRH in response to stress. ACTH also known as adrenalcorticotropic hormone. (Adreanl-cortico: meaning it acts on the adrenal gland to release corticosteroids) is released into the blood. It is carried to the adrenal gland where stimulates production of corticosteroids which include two types: 1. Glucocorticoids (cortisol) and 2. mineralcorticoids (adlosterone). |
|
|
Term
| What is the pineal gland and what hormone does it release and how is it activated? |
|
Definition
| The pineal gland is found the third ventricle of the brain and is activated to produce melantonin by darkness and inhibited by light. |
|
|
Term
| Sperm travels from the testes via the _____ to the ejactulatory duct found in the _______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between spermatids and spermatozoa? |
|
Definition
| Spermatids are formed as the results of secondary spermatocytes undergoing meiosis. The spermatids then need to mature in a process known as spermeogenesis. The result of spermeogenesis results in spermatozoa creation. |
|
|
Term
| What is the name for the cells in the semineferous tubules that help sperm during their process of devleopment and maturation? |
|
Definition
| sertoli cells also known as sustenacular cells. Also known as "mother" cells. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the function of sertoli cells |
|
Definition
Sertoli cells are referred to as "mother" cells because their only function is to help nurture and develop sperm. They are activated by FSH. And nurse sperm by:
1. making growth factors for sperm
2. secrete inhibin to regulate process
3. produce androgen binding protein to keep testerone conc high
4. deliver various nutrients for growth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Androgen is a name which refers to androgenic hormones. There are three types which include
1. testosterone
2. DHT
3. androstenediones
Androgens are primarily produced in the testes but also can be made from cholesterol in the adrenal gland. (more specifically in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex) Androgens other than testosterone can be used as precursors to testosterone, estrogen or used for other things. |
|
|
Term
| human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced by |
|
Definition
| syncytiotrophoblast which is a component of the egg. It is released by the egg and acts on HCG receptors |
|
|
Term
| What are the amino acid derived hormones made from tyrosine? |
|
Definition
1. Epinephrine
2. norepineprhine
3. dopamine
4. thryoid hormones (thyroxine and trriodothyronine). |
|
|
Term
| What is the hormone derived from the amino acid tryptophan? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a glycoprotein? Name five |
|
Definition
>200 amino acids and have carbohydrate side chain.
1. TSH
2. LH
3. FSH
4. erythropoietin
5. inhibin |
|
|
Term
| Where are eicosanoids made from? Name two |
|
Definition
arachidonic acid.
1. prostaglandins
2. leukotrienes |
|
|
Term
| Is calcitriol a eicosanoid hormone, lipid derived homorone or glycoprotein hormone? |
|
Definition
| Lipid derived hormone made from cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| name two types of lipid derived hormones |
|
Definition
1. steroid hormones
2. eiconosaids
Hormones derived from lips can be either. A steroid hormone is different than an eiconosaid because it is made from cholesterol while eiconosaid is made from arachidonic acid. |
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Term
| What are the two different ways hormones can travel throughout the body? |
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Definition
| Hormones can travel 1. free or 2. protein bounded. Free hormones are readily available to be used and water soluble. A very small fraction of hormones are in their free form because they are also easily eliminated. The majority of hormones are bounded to proteins such as albumin. By bounding to proteins the hormones are not easily removed by the kidneys and therefore can circulate for longer periods. |
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Term
| Give an example of a neuroendocrine reflex |
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Definition
| Mother nursing a baby will illicit the posterior pituitary to release oxytocin |
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Term
| What are the three most common types of PLASMA MEMBRANE receptors for hormones? |
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Definition
1. Metabotropic receptors
- g-proteins
- Activate secondary messangers like cyclic AMP or IP3, DAG and phospholipase C.
2. enzymatic linked hormone receptors
- tyrosine kinase
3. Ionotropic receptors |
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Term
| Describe the variety in hormone receptors for the body |
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Definition
| Hormones affect a variety of receptors in the body. They can act on the plasma membrane of cells which is great for those hormones that are not lipid soluble. Hormones that are lipid soluble can go through the plasma membrane and act on intracellular receptors in the cytoplasm and nucleus. This process is very similar to enzyme/substrate binding. Intracellular receptors and the hormones that specifically attach to them then activate mRNA to activate or inhibit protein synthesis. Aldosterone is lipid soluble and acts on mineralcoriticoid receptors inside the kidney which then cause protein synthesis of Na channels and enyzmes to increase Na/K pump. Some hormones can act on more than one type of receptors. Like epi which acts on alpha and beta adrenergic receptors. |
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Term
| Another name for the pituitary gland is? |
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Definition
| hypophysis or par nervosa or neurohypophysis. Referred to as "neuro" because from here there is a direct "neuro" link to the hypothalamus. In the hypothalamus are neuronal cell bodies of nuclei that terminate via axons to the "neuro-hypophysis". |
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Term
| the two neuronal cell bodies in the hypothalamus which have axons that terminate in the posterior pituitary are known as? What hormone do they release? |
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Definition
1. paraventricular nuclei - Oxytocin
2. supraoptic nuclei - ADH
* Posterior pituitary is unique in that the hormones oxytocin and ADH are released here from axons that originate in the hypothalamus. So the actual hormones are made in the nuclei cell bodies of the hypothalamus but secreted in the posterior pituitary |
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Term
| Name three places where oxytocin is produced |
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Definition
1. hypothalamus by the pareventricular nuclei
2. uterus
3. fetus
4. males in ledwig cells |
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Term
| Explain the circulation system of the hypophyseal portal system? |
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Definition
| Regulatory hormones are released from the hypothalamus and can either be inhibiting or releasing hormones. The regulator hormones are released into the 1st capillary bed. From their they enter the portal veins which connect the 1st capillary bed to 2nd capillary bed. The 2nd capillary bed is at the anterior pituitary. The regulatory hormones act on the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary is either inhibited or releases its own hormones. Those anterior pituitary hormones renter the capillary bed and then enter the hypophyseal veins and eventually to systemic blood system. |
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Term
| what hormones from the anterior pituitary use tyrosine kinase intracellular receptors? |
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Definition
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Term
| What do tropic hormones do? |
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Definition
| They turn on endocrine glands or support the functions of other organs. |
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Term
| Insulin-like growth factors also known as Somatomedin C is secreted from? What does it do? |
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Definition
| Liver. It acts to augment the effects of growth hormone by acting on the bone/heart/lungs and chondrocytes to increase overall synthesis and size. |
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Term
| GH acts directly on what organs? What does it make them do? |
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Definition
| liver / muscle / adipose tissue. It stimulates them to go into a state of building / synthesis ect... The liver also stimulated to release insulin like growth factors also known as somatomedin C which act on the heart/lungs/bones and chondrocytes in a similar fashion as GH does on the adipose/muscle/liver. |
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Term
| Name the two regulatory hormones released by the hypothalamus that act on inhibiting or releasing of GH |
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Definition
1. Growth hormone releasing hormone
2. Somatostatin AKA growth hormone inhibiting hormone.
Somatostatin is also made by delta cells in the pancreas. |
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Term
| Primary function for prolactin? released from? |
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Definition
| Prolactin is released from the anterior pituitary and stimulates mammary gland in females. |
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Term
| The Melanocyte stimulating hormone is released from? What is its function? |
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Definition
| its released from the pars intermedia of the anterior pituitary during fetal devleopment and young children to increase melanin production for skin color. But in adults its no longer active. |
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Term
| What part of our body has two lobes and is connected by an isthmus? |
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Definition
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Term
| Most of the thyroxine is T4 (90%) but there is some free form thyroxine which is T3 (10%). 75% of T3 is mostly made from the metabolism of T4 to T3 in what two organs? |
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Definition
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Term
| Explain the process to how the thyroid gland is stimulated |
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Definition
| The hypothalamus, in the base of the brain, produces thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce TSH. TSH stimulates the thyroid to release T3/T4 and increases the plasma membrane Iodine/Na Co-transport pump. The increase Iodine concentration moves across the cell to the lumen side of the cell where another pump removes the iodine into the lumen. Inside the lumen is a large protein molecule known as thyroglobulin which was originally made in the cell too by endoplasmic reticulum and then processed in the golgi apparatus before being removed into the lumen side of the thyroid where it combines with iodine. This large molecule (thyroglobulin + Iodine) re-enters the cell via pinocytosis. As it makes it way back to the other side of the cell that borders the interstitial fluid it is acted on by proteases which remove T3/T4/RT3 and exretes them into the interstitial fluid which then goes into the blood. The remaining parts of the protein are recycled. Most importantly the tyrosine part is recycled back into the endoplasmic reticulum where it can be remade into thyroglobulin again. |
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Term
| Where are parafollicular cells located in relation to the follicles of the thyroid? |
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Definition
| The thyroid has circular groupings known as follicles which look like a fenced in circular yard. Inside the fence is where all the thryoglobulin is stored and mixes with iodine. The fence part is the cellular perimeter that makes the thyroglobulin and also lets iodine pass through from outside the fence (interstial space) through the fence to the inside lumen part. There are many circular style groupings in the thyroid that abut each other. Just like lining up doughnuts on a tray there will be space in between them. In the space in between them are C cells also known as parafollcular cells. The secrete calcitonin which decrease Ca levels. |
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Term
| What are three plasma proteins that carry T4 and T3? |
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Definition
1. globulin 75%
2. albumin 15%
3. Prealbumin 10% |
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Term
| Function of thryoid hormones? |
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Definition
| T3 and T4 cross membranes at the tissue level and bind with intracellular receptors to activate protein synthesis in both the nucleus and cytoplasm. They act on the body to increase development and metabolism for growth. |
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Term
| Chromaffin cells are located where? What do they release? |
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Definition
| They are located in the adrenal medulla and release epinephrine and norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
ACTH:
A - Adrenergic functions
C - Catabolism of proteins/ Carbohydrate metabolism
T - T- cell immunomodulation
H - hyper/ Hypotension (blood pressure control) |
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Term
| mnemonic for adrenal cortex layers and hormones |
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Definition
"Get your Facts Right, Men are Glued to their Gonads":
Glomerulosa
Fasciculata
Reticularis
Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Gonadocorticoids [androgens] |
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Term
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Definition
THYROIDISM: (hyper)
Tremor
Heart rate up
Yawning [fatigability]
Restlessness
Oligomenorrhea & amenorrhea
Intolerance to heat
Diarrhea
Irritability
Sweating
Musle wasting & weight loss |
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Term
| mnemonic for what stimulates aldosterone release |
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Definition
RNAs
Renin-angiotensin m echanism
Na concentraton in blood
ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
Stress |
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Term
| mneumonic for LH and FSH and how the function in males |
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Definition
LH -(L)- L-eydig cells stimulated to produce testosterone.
FSH - (S)- S-permatogenesis stimulated. |
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Term
| what stimulates the release of adrenal androgens? |
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Definition
| NOTHING. Adrenal androgens such as androstenedione and DHEA are secreted continuously and are bounded to albumin. |
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Term
| The functions of cortisol are? |
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Definition
Cortisol: promotes buildup after fight(PBFA)
P - protein metabolism
B - Blood glucose (increases)
A - Antinflammatory
F - Fat metabolism |
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Term
| why do you have bronzing of the skin and gums from addison's disease? |
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Definition
| Addison's disease is also known as "primary adrenocortical insufficiency". So in primary it is the adrenal cortex that is the problem. The adrenal cortex is no longer producing enough glucorticoids, mineralcorticoids and androgen. So overall the person feels more tired. Also the adrenal cortex is less receptive to ACTH stimulation so ACTH builds up. That results in melanin activity from the precursor of ACTH that is in excess as well. |
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Term
| What is the difference between primary and secondary adrenal cortex insufficency |
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Definition
| PRimary means the adrenal cortex itself has something wrong with it so there is a build up of ACTH. But in secondary adrenal insufficency the adrenal cortex is working fine but there is a deficiency of ACTH. So in this case the only part of the adrenal cortex that responds to ACTH is glucocorticoids and small effect on androgens. (they mostly continusously get secreted. |
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Term
| What's the difference between cushing's syndrome and cushings disease? |
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Definition
| Cushing syndrome is a broad definition for any disease that results in excess glucocorticoid secretion. While cushing's disease refers to a type of cushing's syndrome caused by excess ACTH secretion from a pituitary tumor or by a tumor in the zona faciculata. |
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Term
| What are the cell types found in the pancreatic islets? What stimulates them? What do each of those cells release? |
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Definition
1. Alpha cells: glucagon
2. Beta Cells: insulin
3. Delta cells: somatostatin
4. F (PP) cells: pancreatic polypeptide
Stimulated by sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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Term
| Sympathetic stimulation of the pancreas will result in? What neurotransmitter is directly released to the pancreas and what cells are primarily acted on? |
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Definition
| Pancreas is directly innervated by preganglionic neurons which release norepinephrine. Results in decrease insulin production and increase glucagon production. |
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Term
| primary function of somatostatin? Where is it from? |
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Definition
| somatostatin is from several places. Stomach its made from D cells, in the hypothalamus its released under another name - Growth hormone inhibitor hormone, and from the pancreas via delta cells. It functions to decrease secretion of GH, insulin, glucagon, TSH and some GI hormone. |
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Term
| What controls glucose more? Glucagon or insulin? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does the body respond during hypoglycemia |
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Definition
| The brain senses hypoglycemia and signals the brain to stimulate epinephrine release from adrenal medulla which results in liver glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. |
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Term
| Why do diabetics have long term problems such as atherosclerosis? |
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Definition
| Due to inability to bring glucose into the cells efficently both type I and II diabetics over time are forced to use more fat metabolism to make up for its needs. This results in cholesterol deposits in the vessel walls. |
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Term
| What are the two ways the body can obtain cholecalciferol? |
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Definition
1. Diet
2. Cholesterol changed to cholecalciferol in the skin under light. |
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Term
| In the seminiferous tubules there are sustenacular cells (AKA Sertoli cells or nurse cells) which create these three substances |
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Definition
1. inhibin
2. androgen-binding protein
3. aromatase (converts testosterone to estrogen) |
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Term
| Explain process for blastocyst in the uterine lining |
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Definition
| 5-7 days after ovulation blastocyst will adhere to the uterine lining and syncytial trophoblas cells will cover it. They release HCG. Also lead to develoopment of placenta. |
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Term
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Definition
| prevents disintegration of corpus luteum and helps act on receptors to continue progesterone and estrogen secretions. |
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Term
| What does HCG for male fetuses |
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Definition
| stimulates testosterone production |
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Term
| What's oxytocins function during pregnancy |
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Definition
| secreted from the posterior pituitary and causes uterine contractions. |
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Term
| Primary motor center for shivering is located where? What does it stimulate for to cause shivering? |
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Definition
| posterior hypothalamus. Actives muscle spindles in the muscles |
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Term
| What three hormones raise the metabolic rate |
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Definition
1. GH
2. Testosterone
3. Thyroid hormone |
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Term
| One round through the Kreb cycle results in what? |
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Definition
| One round of the Kreb cycle using only one acetyl-CoA will result in 3 NADH 1FADH and 1x ATP (Its really GTP) |
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Term
| Cholesterol is a the precursor for? While phospholipids are precursors for? |
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Definition
Cholesterol: steroids and bile acids
Phospholipids: prostaglandins, thromboxane, inositol trisphosphate |
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Term
| Explain the plasma transport and absorption of cholesterol and triglycerides in the body. |
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Definition
Triglycerides and cholesterol are not water soluble and need glycoproteins to travel throughout the body. Cholesterol and triglycerides are absorbed in the intestine, can synthesize mostly in the liver but also in the adrenal gland and sex organs. Any fatty acid or cholesterol absorbed through the intestine is referred to as chylomicron. The type of glycoproteins that carry cholesterol and fatty acids such as triglyceride are categorized by their densities. The more dense a glycoprotein is then the less triglyceride and more protein it has. Therefore chylomicrons have the most amount of triglyceride and lease protein and HDL has the most protein and least triglyceride.
Chylomicrons: Are mostly triglycerides absorbed from the intestine enter the thoracic duct into systemic circulation and then supply the muscles and adipose tissue of the body where they are broken down into fatty acids by lipoprotein lipase in the endothelium.
VLDL: Contain mostly triglycerides and cholesterol and are the portions of such not used immediately by the liver and travel through the blood. They release their fatty acids to tissues along the way resulting in left over of most cholesterol which then makes them LDL. (b/c less triglycerides and more cholesterol and proteins)
LDL: Continue through the blood until they attach to receptors on other tisuses that actually absorb the LDL via endocytosis and breaks it down with lysosomes to use towards synthesis and hormones creation.
HDL: Is mostly all protein and is a good absorbent of excess cholesterol not used from the breakdown of LDL in cells. HDL transports cholesterol to liver.
Liver: Can release excess cholesterol from the HDL in bile salts. |
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Term
| Is the metabolic rate the amount of heat or energy released over time? |
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Definition
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Term
| Name three kinds of energy compounds used by the body |
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Definition
1. ATP
2. GTP
3. Creatine phosphate |
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Term
| What two areas of the body can use the pentose phosphate pathway? What is the starting material and what is created? |
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Definition
| Liver and adipose can use the pentose phosphate pathway and start with glucose-6-P to make ATP and NADP (NOT NADH BUT NADP **P** |
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Term
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Definition
| That's when the liver converts lactic acid to glucose |
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Term
| Non-hormone control of glucose production is done inside the cell by levels of ____ which allow cells to self regulate glycolysis |
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Definition
| ATP, ADP and AMP levels let cells know if they need more energy or not. |
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Term
| what mechanism of heat loss is the only way the body can loose heat when environmental temperatures are greater than skin temperature |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the area of the brain where temperature sensory information goes? |
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Definition
| preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus |
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Term
| Chemical thermogenesis involves what? |
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Definition
1. Increase heat production over ATP
2. increase metabolic rate of tissues
3. Liver and skeletal muscles will increase glycogenolysis |
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