Term
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Definition
A period of the life course between the time
puberty begins and the time adult status is approached, when young people are in the process of preparing to take on the roles and responsibilities of adulthood in their culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| A period in their late teens and 20s in which young people from the 16th to the 19th century engaged in domestic service, farm service, or apprenticeships in various trades and crafts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Late 19th century group, led by G. Stanley Hall, that advocated research on child and adolescent development and the improvement of conditions for children and adolescents in the family, school, and workplace. |
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Term
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Definition
| Now-discredited theory that held that the development of each individual recapitulates the evolutionary development of the human species as a whole. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory promoted by G. Stanley Hall asserting that adolescence is inevitably a time of mood disruptions, conflict with parents, and antisocial behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A questionnaire study that involves asking a large number of people questions about their opinions, beliefs, or behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sampling technique in which researchers select participants so that various categories of people are represented in proportions equal to their presence in the population. |
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Term
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Definition
| Sampling technique in which the people selected for participation in a study are chosen randomly, meaning that no one in the population has a better or worse chance of being selected than anyone else. |
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Term
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Definition
| A girl's first menstrual period. |
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Term
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Definition
| Period from roughly ages 18 to 25 in industrialized countries during which young people become more independent from parents and explore various life possibilities before making enduring commitments. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reference to Lamarck's ideas, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that evolution takes place as a result of accumulated experience such that organisms pass on their characteristics from one generation to the next in the form of memories and acquired characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Period of human development lasting from about age 10 to about age 14. |
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Term
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Definition
| Period of human development lasting from about age 15 to about age 18. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cultural belief system that emphasized the desirability of independence, self-sufficiency, and self-expression. |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of beliefs asserting that it is important for persons to mute their individual desires in order to contribute to the well-being and success of the group. |
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Term
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Definition
| The web of commitments, attachments, and obligations that exist in some human groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| A systematic way of finding the answers to questions or problems that includes standards of sampling, procedure, and measures. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ideas, based on theory or previous research, that a scholar wishes to test in a scientific study. |
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Term
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Definition
| The people included in a given study, who are intended to represent the population of interest. |
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Term
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Definition
| The entire group of people of interest in a study. |
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Term
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Definition
| Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which it accurately represents the population of interest. |
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Term
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Definition
| Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which findings based on the sample can be used to make accurate statements about the population of interest. |
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Term
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Definition
| Standards for the way a study is conducted. Includes informed consent and certain rules for avoiding biases in the data collection. |
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Term
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Definition
| A scientific strategy for collecting data. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a scholarly article or book is evaluated by a scholar's peers (i.e., other scholars) for scientific credibility and importance. |
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Term
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Definition
| Standard procedure in social scientific studies that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks. |
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Term
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Definition
| Written statement provided by a researcher to potential participants in a study, informing them of who is conducting the study, the purposes of the study, and what their participation would involve, including potential risks. |
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Term
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Definition
| Questionnaire format that entails choosing from specific responses provided for each question. |
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Term
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Definition
| Questionnaire format that involves writing in response to each question. |
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Term
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Definition
| Research method that involves asking people questions in a conversational format, such that people's answers are in their own words. |
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Term
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Definition
| Data that is collected in non-numerical form, usually in interviews or observations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Data that is collected in numerical form, usually on questionnaires. |
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Term
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Definition
| Research in which scholars spend a considerable amount of time among the people they wish to study, usually living among them. |
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Term
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Definition
| A book that presents an anthropologist's observations of what life is like in a particular culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| Characteristic of a measure that refers to the extent to which results of the measure on one occasion are similar to results of the measure on a separate occasion. |
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Term
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Definition
| The truthfulness of a measure, that is, the extent to which it measures what it claims to measure. |
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Term
| experimental research method |
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Definition
| A research method that entails assigning participants randomly to an experimental group that received a treatment and a control group that does not receive the treatment, then comparing the two groups in a posttest. |
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Term
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Definition
| In experimental research, the group that receives the treatment. |
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Term
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Definition
| In experimental research, the group that does not receive the treatment. |
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Term
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Definition
| Programs intended to change the attitudes and/or behavior of the participants. |
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Term
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Definition
| A situation that occurs naturally but that provides interesting scientific information to the perceptive observer. |
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Term
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Definition
| Twins with exactly the same genotype. Also known as identical twins. |
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Term
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Definition
| Twins with about half their genotype in common, the same as for other siblings. Also known as fraternal twins. |
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Term
| correlation versus causation |
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Definition
| A correlation is a predictable relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. However, just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one causes the other, |
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Term
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Definition
| A study in which data is collected from the participants on more than one occasion. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cultural belief in the absolute authority of the father over his wife and children. |
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Term
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Definition
| Confucian belief, common in many Asian societies, that children are obligated to respect, obey, and revere their parents, especially the father. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hindu belief that people are born into a particular caste based on their moral and spiritual conduct in their previous life. A person's caste then determines their status in Indian society. |
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Term
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Definition
| Increasing worldwide technological and economic integration, which is making different pars of the world increasingly connected and increasingly similar culturally. |
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Term
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Definition
| Having an identity that includes aspects of two different cultures. |
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Term
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Definition
| Overcoming adverse environmental circumstances to achieve healthy development. |
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Term
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Definition
| The total pattern of a group's customs, beliefs, art, and technology; a group's common way of life, passed on from one generation to the next. |
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Term
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Definition
| The United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand; they are all developed countries, they are all representative democracies with similar kinds of governments, and they share to some extent a common cultural history; today, they are characterized by secularism, consumerism, and capitalism, to one degree or another; usually refers to the majority culture in each of the countries, but each country also has cultural groups that do not share the characteristics of the majority culture and may even be in opposition to it. |
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Term
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Definition
| Includes the countries of the West along with Eastern countries such as Japan and South Korea; all of them have highly developed economies that have passed through a period of industrialization and are now based mainly on services (such as law, banking, sales, and accounting) and information (such as computer-related companies). |
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Term
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Definition
| The culture that sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of political, economic, intellectual, and media power; in America, the mostly White, middle-class majority in American society. |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of people who interact in the course of sharing a common geographical area; may include a variety of cultures with different customs, religions, family traditions, and economic practices; different from a culture: members of a culture share a common way of life, whereas members of this may not. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to a culture that has maintained a way of life based on stable traditions passed from one generation to the next. These cultures do not generally value change but rather place a higher value on remaining true to cultural traditions; often, they are called "preindustrial," which means that they technology and economic practices typical in developed countries are not widely used. |
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Term
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Definition
| Previously traditional, preindustrial cultures that become industrialized as a consequence of globalization. |
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Term
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Definition
| Often used to refer to social class, which includes educational level, income level, and occupational status. For adolescents and emerging adults, because they have not yet reached the social class they will have as adults, this is usually used in reference to their parents' levels of education, income, and occupation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adolescents and emerging adults together. |
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Term
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Definition
| The plan for when and how to collect the data for a study. |
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Term
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Definition
| Research in which data are collected on a sample of people at a single point in time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Research technique which utilizes both stratified sampling and random sampling on a large scale. |
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Term
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Definition
| Research technique which utilizes both stratified sampling and random sampling on a large scale. |
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Term
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Definition
| The changes in physiology, anatomy, and physical functioning that develop a person into a mature adult biologically and prepare the body for sexual reproduction. |
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Term
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Definition
| A network of glands in the body. Through hormones, the glands coordinate their functioning and affect the development and functioning of the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemicals, released by the glands of the endocrine system, that affect the development and functioning of the body, including development during puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| The "master gland," located in the lower part of the brain beneath the cortex, that affects a wide range of physiological and psychological functioning and stimulates and regulates the production of hormones by other glands, including the ones involved in the initiation of puberty. |
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Term
| gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) |
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Definition
| Hormone released by the hypothalamus that causes gonadotropins to be released by the pituitary. |
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Term
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Definition
| A protein, produced by fat cells, that signals the hypothalamus to initiate the hormonal changes of puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| A gland about half an inch long located at the base of the brain that released gonadotropins as part of the body's preparation for reproduction. |
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Term
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Definition
| hormones (FSH and LH) that stimulate the development of gametes. |
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Term
| follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) |
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Definition
| Along with LH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Along with FSH, stimulates the development of gametes and sex hormones in the ovaries and testicles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells, distinctive to each sex, that are involved in reproduction (egg cells in the ovaries of the female and sperm in the testes of the male). |
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Term
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Definition
| The ovaries and testicles. Also known as the sex glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Androgens and estrogens that cause the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sex hormones that have especially high levels in females from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for female primary and secondary sex characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sex hormones that have especially high levels in males from puberty onward and are mostly responsible for male primary and secondary sex characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| The estrogen most important in pubertal development among girls. |
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Term
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Definition
| The androgen most important in pubertal development among boys. |
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Term
| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
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Definition
| The hormone that causes the adrenal glands to increase androgen production |
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Term
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Definition
| System of hormones involving the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads, which monitors and adjusts the levels of sex hormones. |
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Term
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Definition
| Optimal level of sex hormones in the body. When this point is reached, responses in the glands of the feedback loop cause the production of sex hormones to be reduced. |
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Term
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Definition
| The rapid increase in height that takes place at the beginning of puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| The point at which the adolescent growth spurt is at its maximum rate. |
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Term
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Definition
| Uneven growth of different parts of the body during puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| The feet, hands, and head. |
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Term
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Definition
| The amount of air that can be exhaled after a deep breath, which increases rapidly during puberty, especially for boys. |
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Term
| maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) |
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Definition
| A measure of the ability of the body to take in oxygen and transport it to various organs; peaks in the early 20s. |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of the quantity of blood pumped by the heart. |
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Term
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Definition
| Efforts to reduce health problems in young people through encouraging changes in the behaviors that put young people at risk. |
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Term
| primary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| The production of eggs and sperm and the development of the sex organs. |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics |
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Definition
| Bodily changes of puberty not directly related to reproduction. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mature egg that develops from follicle in ovaries about every 28 days. |
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Term
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Definition
| Beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| External female sex organs, including the labia majora, the labia minora, and the clitoris. |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of vulva; Latin for "large lips." |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of vulva; Latin for "small lips." |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of vulva in which females' sexual sensations are concentrated. |
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Term
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Definition
| The first slight enlargement of the breast in girls at puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| Area surrounding the nipple on the breast; enlarges at puberty. |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in the characteristics of a population over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Term meaning that genes establish a range of possible development and environment determines where development takes place within that range. |
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Term
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Definition
| The prohibition on sexual relations between family members. Believed to be biologically based, as children born to closely related parents are at higher risk for genetic disorders. |
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Term
| premenstrual syndrome (PMS) |
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Definition
| The combination of behavioral, emotional, and physical symptoms that occur in some females the week before menstruation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A male's first ejaculation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organized by age, for example in schools. |
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Term
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Definition
| Debate over the relative importance of biology and the environment in human development. |
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Term
| theory of genotype-->environment effects |
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Definition
| Theory that both genetics and environment make essential contributions to human development but are difficult to unravel because our genes actually influence the kind of environment we experience. |
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Term
| passive genotype-->environment effects |
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Definition
| Situation in biological families that parents provide both genes and environment for their children, making genes and environment difficult to separate in their effects on children's development. |
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Term
| evocative genotype-->environment effects |
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Definition
| Occur when a person's inherited characteristics evoke responses from others in the environment. |
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Term
| active genotype-->environment effects |
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Definition
| Occur when people seek out environments that correspond to their genotypic characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Among Orthodox Jewish women, a ritual bath taken a week after the conclusion of the menstrual period, believed to cleanse the impurity believed to be associated with menstruation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes over time in how people think, how they solve problems, and how their capacities for memory and attention change. |
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Term
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Definition
| Influential Swiss developmental psychologist, best known for his theories of cognitive and moral development |
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Term
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Definition
| A period in which abilities are organized in a coherent, interrelated way. |
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Term
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Definition
| The organization of cognitive abilities into a single pattern, such that thinking in all aspects of life is a reflection of that structure. |
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Term
| cognitive-developmental approach |
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Definition
| Approach to understanding cognition that emphasizes the changes that take place at different ages. |
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which abilities develop through genetically based development with limited influence from the environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mental structure for organizing and interpreting information. |
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Term
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Definition
| The cognitive process that occurs when new information is altered to fit an existing scheme. |
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Term
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Definition
| The cognitive process that occurs when a scheme is changed to adapt to new information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive stage in first 2 years of life that involves learning how to coordinate the activities of the senses with motor activities. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive stage from ages 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically--for example, through the use of language--but is still very limited in ability to use mental operations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive stage from age 7 to 11 in which children learn to use mental operations but are limited to applying them to concrete, observable situations rather than hypothetical situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive activity involving manipulating and reasoning about objects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive stage from age 11 on up in which people learn to think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses. |
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Term
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Definition
| Piaget's classic test of formal operations, in which persons are asked to figure out what determines the speed at which a pendulum sways from side to side. |
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Term
| hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
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Definition
| Piaget's term for the process by which the formal operational thinker systematically tests possible solutions to a problem and arrives at an answer that can be defended and explained. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking in terms of symbols, ideas, and concepts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that takes into account multiple connections and interpretations, such as in the use of metaphor, satire, and sarcasm. |
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Term
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Definition
| The capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Approach to research that focuses on how individuals differ within a group, for example, in performance on IQ tests. |
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Term
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Definition
| Type of thinking beyond formal operations, involving greater awareness of the complexity of real-life situations, such as the use of pragmatism and reflective judgment. |
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Term
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Definition
| Type of thinking that involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real-life situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Type of thinking that develops in emerging adulthood, involving a growing awareness that most problems do not have a single solution and that problems must often be addressed with crucial pieces of information missing. |
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Term
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Definition
| The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of evidence and arguments. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive approach entailing recognition that there is more than one legitimate view of things and that it can be difficult to justify one position as the true or accurate one. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive ability to recognize the legitimacy of competing points of view but also compare the relative merits of competing views. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive status in which persons commit themselves to certain points of view they believe to be the most valid while at the same time being open to reevaluating their views if new evidence is presented to them. |
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Term
| information-processing approach |
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Definition
| An approach to understanding cognition that seeks to delineate the steps involved in the thinking process and how each step is connected to the next. |
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Term
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Definition
| A view of development as taking place in stages that are distinct from one another rather than as one gradual, continuous process. |
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Term
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Definition
| A view of development as a gradual, steady process rather than as taking place in distinct stages. |
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Term
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Definition
| Description of the information-processing approach to cognition, indicating that it involves breaking down the thinking process into its various components. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to focus on relevant information while screening out information that is irrelevant. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to focus on more than one task at a time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory for information that is the current focus of attention. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory for information that is committed to long-term storage, so that it can be drawn upon after a period when attention has not been focused on it. |
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Term
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Definition
| An aspect of short-term memory that refers to where information is stored as it is comprehended and analyzed. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Degree of cognitive effort a person needs to devote to processing a given set of information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes lost. |
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Term
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Definition
| Thinking that involves not merely memorizing information but analyzing it, making judgments about what it means, relating it to other information, and considering ways in which it might be valid or invalid. |
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Term
| behavioral decision theory |
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Definition
| Theory of decision making that describes the decision-making process as including (1) identifying the range of possible choices; (2) identifying the consequences that would result from each choice; (3) evaluating the desirability of each consequence; (4) assessing the likelihood of each consequence; and (5) integrating this information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Term applied especially to cognitive development, meaning that cognitive development affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic. |
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Term
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Definition
| How people think about other people, social relationships, and social institutions |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others. |
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Term
| mutual perspective taking |
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Definition
| Stage of perspective taking, often found in early adolescence, in which persons understand that their perspective-taking interactions with others are mutual, in the sense that each side realizes that the other can take their perspective. |
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Term
| social and conventional system perspective taking |
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Definition
| Realizing that the social perspectives of self and others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but by their roles in the larger society. |
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Term
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Definition
| Promoting the well-being of others. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to attribute mental states to one's self and others, including beliefs, thoughts, and feelings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Type of egocentrism in which adolescents have difficulty distinguishing their thinking about their own thoughts from their thinking about the thoughts of others. |
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Term
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Definition
| Belief that others are acutely aware of and attentive to one's appearance and behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A belief in one's personal uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability to the consequences of taking risks. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to other people than to one's self. |
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Term
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Definition
| Attempt to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive abilities using intelligence tests |
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Term
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Definition
| French psychologist who developed the first intelligence test in the early 20th century, which later became known as the Stanford-Binet. |
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Term
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Definition
| Widely used IQ test developed by Alfred Binet and revised by scholars at Stanford University |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of a person's intellectual abilities based on a standardized test. |
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Term
| Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) |
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Definition
| Intelligence test for children ages 6 to 16, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests. |
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Term
| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) |
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Definition
| Intelligence test for persons ages 16 and up, with six Verbal and five Performance subtests. |
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Term
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Definition
| In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine verbal abilities |
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Term
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Definition
| In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that examine abilities for attention, spatial perception, and speed of processing. |
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Term
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Definition
| In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons of the same age. |
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Term
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Definition
| In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons, regardless of age. |
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Term
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Definition
| Technique for developing a psychological test, in which a typical score for each age is established by testing a large random sample of people from a variety of geographical areas and social class backgrounds. |
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Term
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Definition
| In a distribution of scores, the point at which half of the population scores above and half below. |
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Term
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Definition
| Type of reliability that examines whether or not persons' scores on one occasion are similar to their scores on another occasion. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental abilities that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and reacting to information. |
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Term
| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| Accumulated knowledge and enhanced judgment based on experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| In longitudinal research, the ability of a variable at Time 1 to predict the outcome of a variable at Time 2. |
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Term
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Definition
| The adoption of children of one race by parents of a different race. |
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Term
| theory of multiple intelligences |
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Definition
| Howard Gardner's theory that there are eight separate types of intelligence. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for measuring brain functioning during an ongoing activity. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for assessing ongoing brain functioning, in which a chemical that emits positrons is injected into the body, and detectors measure their activity levels in various parts of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The point of transmission between two nerve cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells of the nervous system, including the brain. |
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Term
| overproduction or exuberance |
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Definition
| A rapid increase in the production of synaptic connections in the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The outer layer of the brain, where most of the growth in brain cells occurs during overproduction in adolescence. |
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| The part of the brain immediately behind the forehead. Known to be involved in higher brain functions such as planning ahead and analyzing complex problems. |
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| Following overproduction, the process by which the number of synapses in the brain are reduced, making brain functioning faster and more efficient but less flexible. |
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| Process by which myelin, a blanket of fat wrapped around the main part of the neuron, grows. Myelin serves the function of keeping the brain's electrical signals on one path and increasing their speed. |
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| A structure in the lower brain, well beneath the cortex, long thought to be involved only in basic functions such as movement, now known to be important for many higher functions as well, such as mathematics, music, decision making, and social skills. |
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| Russian psychologist who emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development. |
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| zone of proximal development |
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| The gap between how competently a person performs a task alone and when guided by an adule or more competent peer. |
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| The degree of assistance provided to the learner in the zone of proximal development, gradually decreasing as the learner's skills develop. |
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| The teaching interaction between two people (often an adult and a child or adolescent) as they participate in a culturally valued activity. |
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| Approach to human psychology emphasizing that psychological functioning cannot be separated from the culture in which it takes place. |
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| The predominant beliefs in a culture about right and wrong, what is most important in life, and how life should be lived. May also include beliefs about where and how life originated and what happens after death. |
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| The set of ideas and understandings, both implicit and explicit, about persons, society, nature, and divinity that serve as a guide to life in a particular culture. It is expressed symbolically through stories, songs, rituals, sacred objects, and sacred places. |
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| Defined social positions in a culture, containing specifications of behavior, status, and relations with others. Examples include gender, age, and social class. |
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| Cultural beliefs about the kinds of work, appearance, and other aspects of behavior that distinguish women from men. |
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| The process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the culture in which they live. |
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| The capacity for exercising self-control in order to restrain one's impulses and comply with social norms. |
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| An outcome of socialization that includes preparation for occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriage and parenthood. |
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| Jewish religious ritual for girls at age 13 that signifies the adolescents' new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs. |
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| Jewish religious ritual for boys at age 13 that signifies the adolescents' new responsibilities with respect to Jewish beliefs. |
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| The ideas and beliefs that people learn as a part of socialization, indicating what is important, what is to be values, what is to be lived for, and how to explain and offer consolation for the individual's mortality. |
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| A conception of the self typically found in collectivistic cultures, in which the self is seen as defined by roles and relationships within the group. |
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| A conception of the self typically found in individualistic cultures, in which the self is seen as existing independently of relations with others, with an emphasis on independence, individual freedoms, and individual achievements. |
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| The process by which persons in an individualistic culture come to learn individualism, including values of individual uniqueness, independence, and self-expression. |
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| The process by which persons in a collectivistic culture come to learn collectivism, including values of obedience and conformity. |
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| A customary practice and the beliefs, values, sanctions, rules, motives, and satisfactions associated with it; that is, a normative practice in a culture and the cultural beliefs that provide the basis for that practice. |
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| Something that occurs naturally in the course of development as part of normal maturation; that is, it is driven by innate processes rather than by environmental stimulation or a specific cultural practice. |
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| first-generation families |
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| The status of persons who were born in one country and then immigrated to another. |
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| second-generation families |
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| The status of persons who were born in the country they currently reside in but whose parents were born in a different country. |
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| Based on nonreligious beliefs and values. |
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| The tendency for people participating in social science studies to report their behavior as they believe it would be approved by others rather than as it actually occurred. |
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| poetic-conventional faith |
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| Fowler's term for the stage of faith development most typical of early adolescence, in which people become more aware of the symbolism used in their faith and religious understanding becomes more complex in the sense hat early adolescents increasingly believe that there is more than one way of knowing the truth. |
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| individuating-reflective faith |
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| Fowler's term for the stage of faith most typical of late adolescence and emerging adulthood, in which people rely less on what their parents believed and develop a more individualized faith based on questioning their beliefs and incorporating their personal experience into their beliefs. |
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| Piaget's term for the period of moral development from about ages 4 to about 7, in which moral rules are viewed as having a sacred, fixed quality, handed down from figures of authority and alterable only by them. |
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| Piaget's term for the period of moral development from about ages 10 to 12, involving a growing realization that moral rules are social conventions that can be changed if people decide they should be changed. |
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| preconventional reasoning |
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| In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the level in which moral reasoning is based on perceptions of the likelihood of external rewards and punishments. |
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| In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the level of moral reasoning in which the person advocates the value of conforming to the moral expectations of others. What is right is whatever agrees with the rules established by tradition and by authorities. |
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| postconventional reasoning |
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| In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the level in which moral reasoning is based on the individual's own independent judgments rather than on egocentric considerations or considerations of what others view as wrong or right. |
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| A type of moral orientation that places a premium on abstract principles of justice, equality, and fairness. |
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| Gilligan's term for the type of moral orientation that involves focusing on relationships with others as the basis for moral reasoning. |
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| A set of cultural beliefs that explain what it means to be human, how human relations should be conducted, and how human problems should be addressed. |
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