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| molecules that stimulate an immune response. they're usually proteins or prlysaccharides. they're pathogens, parts, or products of pathogens or other foreign compounds. |
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| are protein molecules that detect & destory antigens. the function of antibodies is to destroy antigens. they're soluable proteins. they bind to chemical targets called antigens. (anit-body mediated immunity.) |
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| small bean-shaped enlargements that lymph vessles pass through. they act las filters and producers of lymphocytes. |
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| special wbc that is specialized to fight infection. three kinds: T, B, and NK. they respond to the presence of invading pathogens, abnormal cells, infected cells, cancer cells, foreign proteins. they use both physical and chemical means to address infection. an immune response is the body's attack/defense response to infection. immunity is the ability to resist infection through the activation of specific defenses. |
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| contain valves to prevent the back flow of lymphs. lymph vessles form a one-way system that returns fluids collected in tissues back to the bloodstream. |
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| doesn't target a particular pathogen |
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| non specific defenses include: (7) |
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physical barriers,
phagocyte cells,
immunological surveillance,
interferons,
complement,
inflammation,
fever, |
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| skin and mucous membranes. secretions from the skin contain antibodies & flush away pathogens. mucous lining the respiratory system traps bacteria; urine/reproductive resecretions flush out the urinary/reproductive tracts |
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| neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages reside in blood & peripheral tissue |
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| immunological survillance |
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| NK cells attack & destory abnormal cells. these cells may be infected or cancerous. |
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| interferons are small proteins released by activated lymphacytes & infected tissues. normal cells that detect inferterons produce proteins that interfere with viral replication |
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| complements interact with one another in a chain reaction similar to the blood clotting process. these proteins bind to anitbodies or pathogens & attrac phagocytes. they destory cell membranes & promated inflammation |
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| is localized & produces swelling, redness, heat & pain. damaged tissues stimulates mast cells to release histamine & reparin to dilate blood vessles. inflammation slows spread of pathogens & allows temporary repair of tissue. |
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| circulating proteins called pirogens can reset thermostat in the hypothalamus & cause a rise in body temperature. pathogens and toxins may have this same effect. high body temp. can stimulate activity of the immune system & inhibit bacterial growth |
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| innate(natural), acquired(artificial), active, passive, |
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| geneticall determined & present at birth. doesn't depend on previuos exposure to antigens. ie: humans & amphibians don't get the same diseases |
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| appears after birth in response to ambient (pollen) or administered pathogens (vaccine) |
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| resistance to pathogens is passed along from mother to fetus/enfant. ie: through breast milk of placenta. |
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| function if respiratory system (3) |
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| - provides large area for gas exchange between outside environment & blood. -protects respiratory system. -producese sound. -provides olfactory information to the brain (to alert us to danger), |
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| vocal chord tissue is composed of elastic ligaments. air passing over these ligaments causes thme to vibrate. uscles that insert on the surrounding carilage contract & alter tensions on these ligaments. these muscles & size of the ligaments determine pitch. the sound that you produce is also modified by oral and nasal cavities as well as your tongue and lips. |
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| the oxygen concentration of the alveoli is higher than the capillarie surrounding them. the diffusion gradient allows oxygen to difusse out of the alveoli into the capillaries. the oxygenated blood is then carried back to the heart where it is pumped to the rest of the body. now the diffusion gradient works in reverse and the oxygen diffuses from the capillaries to the cells. oxygen is relatively insoluable in water. rbcs are made of 4 polypetide proteins chains within each is an iron atom that binds readily with oxygen so each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules. each rbc contains about 250 mill hemoglobin molecules. the amount of oxygen carried by a rbc depends on atmospheric pressure-- @sea level the hemoglobin becomes saturated with oxygen @ high altitude where pressure is low less oxygen can be carried. |
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| in the tissues of metabolizing cells, co2 concentration is higher than in the capillaries. this difference establishes a concentration gradient. co2 diffuses from the cells into the blood. from the blood, co2 diffuses into the alveoli of the lungs & is exchanged for o2. |
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| co2 is carried in the blood in 3 ways: |
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Definition
1. 7% -- dissolved in blood plasma.
2. 3% -- can combine with hemoglobin to form HbCO2.
3. 70% -- transported in the form of bicarbonated ions contained in blod plasma. |
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| when the blood is rich in co2, and low in o2, reaches the alveoli, the following occurs: |
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| 1. the co2 in the blood diffuses in the alveoli. the carbaminohemoglobin releases its co2 since hemoblobin has a greater affinity for o2 than co2. the carbonic acid dissociates back to co2 & water. the co2 diffuses out of the blood in the alveoli and is exhaled. o2 diffuses from the alveoli into the blood is carried to the cells |
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| breathing is a mechanical process base don the air-pressure gradient inside & outisde the chest cavity. when air pressure outisde is greater than inside the lungs, air flows into the lungs, and we inhale. when air pressure outisde is less than insides the lungs, air flows out, we exhale. |
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| pressure within the lungs is governed by the diaphragm and external intercoastal muscles that control size of the chest cavity. |
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| an oily substance that coats the surface of alveoli cells so that moisteure in the lungs does not allow them to stick together. also, the caivty the lungs reisde in, the pleural cavity, is dlaso lined with a membrane called the parietal membrane. these 2 membranes have surfactant between to eliminated friction between the 2 and provide a gliding surface for the lungs to expand and contract |
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| cytotoxic (killer) T cells |
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| directly attack foreign cells or cellls infected by viruses. mediated immunity. the cells signals the immune system to act. track down and attack bacteria, fungi, protozoa, transplant tissue, or other antigens. |
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| produce and secrete antibodies. they're derived from the bone marrow. they make up only 10-15% of lymphocytes. |
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| 5-10% of lymphocytes. they attack foreign cells, virus infected cells, & cancer cells. they continually monitor peripheral tissue in a process known as immunological surveillence |
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| remain in reserve endcoded with the structure of the foreign structure of the foreign protein. if reinfected, the cells respond immediately & differentiates into cytotoxic T cells. |
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| strucutres of the respiratory system (10) |
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Definition
nasal passage (nasal cochlea), pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli, the pleura encoluses the lungs. |
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| warm, filter, clean, & moisten the air |
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| create turbulence that cause the airborne particles to be trapped by mucuous membranes, air is also warm & humidified. |
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| includes epiglottis. thyroid carilage, and cricoid cartilage. it also houses the vocal chords. the prominent ridge on hte thyroid cartilage forms the adam's apple in males. |
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| formed of connective tissue and supported by C shaped rings. the trachea extends from the bottom of the larynx to its fork called the bronchi. the c rings allow the compression of the trachea to facilitate the passage of food through. |
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| the fork in the trachea becomes the bronchi. the bronchi have the same supportive caritlage rings. the bronchi further branch into the bronchial tree exventually ending in the alveoli which is where the actual gas exchange takes place. |
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| macrophages (big eaters) patrol these surfaces looking for debris and pathogens. surfactant coats their surfaces. |
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| strucutres of the lymphatic system (3) |
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| vessels, fluid, lymphoid organs |
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| a network of vessels that begin in peripheral tissue and ends in the sub-clavian vein |
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| lymph fluid derived from blood plasma but with fever proteins. |
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| lymph nodes/spleen/thymus that store & synthesize lymphocytes |
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| functions of the lymphatic system |
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| production, maintenance, distribution of lymphocytes stored in lymphoid organs. |
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| excessive immune response |
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| B cells mistake self for nonself. B cells secrete antibodies that destory other body cells and tissues. these anti bodies are referred to as autoantibodies. |
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| autoantiobodies are responsible for destoying connective tissue in joints causing rheumatoid arthritis. |
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| causes enlargement of the extremities due to edema or the buildup of fluid in these areas as a result of the proliferation of a nematode (worm) in the lymph system. transmitted by mosquitoes. uncurable. can be treated successfully if caught early. |
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