Term
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Definition
| the sum of the physical and chemical processes in an organism by which its material substance is produced, maintained, and destroyed, and by which energy is made available |
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Term
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Definition
| reactions involving degredation, synthesis, and transformation of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| the phase of metabolism in which complex molecules, such as the proteins and fats that make up body tissue, are fromed from simpler ones |
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Term
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Definition
| the phase of metabolism in which energy, in the form of ATP, is produced by the breakdown of complex molecules, such as starches, proteins, and fats, into simpler ones |
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Term
| What are some examples of catabolism? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are essential nutrients? |
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Definition
| nutrients required for normal body functioning that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from a dietary source |
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Term
| What are some categories of essential nutrients? |
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Definition
| vitamins, dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids |
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Term
| Fuel metabolism includes _________, __________, and ____________ among energy-rich organic molecules. |
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Definition
| anabolism, catabolism, interconversions |
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Term
| What two things does anabolism involve? |
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Definition
| manufacture of materials needed by the cell or storage of excess ingested nutrients not immediately needed |
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Term
| What two things does catabolism involve? |
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Definition
| hydrolysis of large molecules into smaller sununits and oxidation of smaller subunits to release energy |
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Term
| What does interconversion involve? |
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Definition
| conversion of amino acids into glucose |
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Term
| Why is excess starch stored as fat? |
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Definition
| because large amounts of sugar hooked together, know as glycogen, is too bulky to store for a long period of time |
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Term
| What are the ten (12) essential amino acids? |
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Definition
- HAMPTILLTV
- histidine
- arginine
- methionine
- phenylalanine
- threonine
- isoleucine
- leucine
- lysine
- tryptophan
- valine
- (cysteine, tyrosine)
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Term
| What is the absorbable unit of dietary protein? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the absorbable unit of carbohydrates? |
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Definition
| glucose and monosacharides |
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Term
| What is the absorbably unit of dietary triglyceride fats? |
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Definition
| monoglycerides and fatty acids |
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Term
| Where are fats absorbed into? |
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Definition
| the lymph of the lymphatic system |
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Term
| Why must nutrients be stored? |
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Definition
| because food intake is intermittent |
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Term
| How are nutrients primarily stored? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is excess circulating glucose turned into? |
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Definition
| glycogen in the liver, glial cells, and muscle |
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Term
| What are excess circulating fatty acids transformed into? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are excess circulating amino acids transformed into? |
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Definition
| protein synthesis, glucose, and fatty acids |
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Term
| Adispose tissue had higher ______________ because of the high energy ______ bonds. |
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Definition
| energy concentrations, C-H |
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Term
| What is glycogenesis? What does this cause |
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Definition
| glucose to glycogen; lower blood glucose |
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Term
| What is glycogenolysis? What does this cause? |
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Definition
| glycogen to glucose; increase blood glucose |
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Term
| What is gluconeogenesis? What does this cause? |
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Definition
| amino acids to glucose; increases blood glucose |
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Term
| What is lipogenesis? What does this cause? |
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Definition
| fatty acids and glycerol to triglycerides; decrease in blood fatty acids |
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Term
| What is lypolysis? What does this cause? |
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Definition
| triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol; increases blood fatty acids |
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Term
| Of the three metabolic processes, which one(s) increase(s) blood glucose? Which one(s) decrease(s) blood glucose? |
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Definition
| glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis increases it; glycogenesis decreases it |
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Term
| Why is glucose homeostatically regulated? |
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Definition
| to supply the brain and to prevent damaging precesses at high concentrations |
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Term
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Definition
| it is when there is not enough glucose in the blood |
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Term
| During hypoglycemia, what energy source do tissues that don't neccessarily need glucose use? |
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Definition
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Term
| During hypoglycemia, what does the brain do? |
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Definition
| amino acids are broken down into glucose for it |
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Term
| What is an alternative energy source for the brain? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| it is wehn there is too much glucose in the blood |
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Term
| What does hyperglycemia cause? |
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Definition
- osmosis by high glucose causes cell dehydration
- it also causes glycation of proteins which can alter their structure and activity
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Term
| Metabolic fuels are stored during the __________ state of digestion and they are mobilized during the __________ state. |
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Definition
| absorptive, postabsorptive |
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Term
| What happens to blood glucose when we are eating and when we're not eating? Why? |
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Definition
| When we're eating we have to store glucose and take it out of the blood in order to maintain homeostasis but when we're not eating we dump it back into the bloodstream so that we have energy |
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Term
| During the absorptive state, what happens to carbohydrates? |
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Definition
- glucose provides a major energy source
- glycogen is synthesized and stroed
- excess is converted to and stored as triglyceride fat
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Term
| During the postabsorptive state, what happens to carbohydrates? |
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Definition
- glycogen is degraded and depleted
- glucose is spared for use by the brain
- new glucose is produced through gluconeogenesis
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Term
| During the absorptive state, what happens to fat? |
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Definition
| triglycerides are synthesized and stored |
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Term
| During the postabsorptive state what happens to fat? |
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Definition
- triglyceride catabolism
- fatty acids provide the main energy source for non-glucose-dependent tissues
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Term
| During the absorptive state, what happens to protein? |
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Definition
- protein synthesis
- excess is converted to and stored as triglyceride fat
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Term
| During the postabsorptive state what happens to fat? |
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Definition
- protein catabolism
- amino acids used for gluconeogenesis
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Term
| What is the role of the liver in metabolic states? |
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Definition
- maintains normal blood glucose level
- storage of glycogen
- releases glucose into the blood
- gluconeogenesis
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Term
| What is the role of adispose tissue in metabolic states? |
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Definition
- primary energy storage site
- controls blood fatty acid level
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Term
| What is the role of muscle in metabolic states? |
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Definition
- primary amono acid storage site
- major energy user
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Term
| What is the role of the brain in metabolic states? |
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Definition
| to use glucose as its energy source |
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Term
| What is an example of interconversions? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the primary storage form of nutrients? Why? |
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Definition
| lipids, because it uses less space and is high energy |
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Term
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Definition
| the backbone of triglycerides |
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Term
| What happens to glycerol in the liver? |
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Definition
| it is converted to glucose |
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Term
| What is lactic acid a product of? |
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Definition
| incomplete catabolism of glucose int he muscle |
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Term
| What happens to lactic acid in the liver? |
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Definition
| it is converetd into glucose |
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Term
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Definition
| a water soluble compound that is produced as a byproduct when fatty acids are broken for energy in the liver and kidney |
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Term
| Ketone bodies are used as an energy source in the ______ and ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| Why are ketone bodies so important to the brain? |
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Definition
| because they are a vital source of energy during fasting |
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Term
| How many ketone bodies are there? What are they? |
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Definition
| 3; acetone, acetoacetic acid, and betahydroxybutyric acid |
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Term
| What happens to proteins during prolonged starvation? |
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Definition
| amino acids are mobilized and coverted into glucose for energy for the brain (gluconeogenesis) |
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Term
| What does the brain do in order to prevent death from protein breakdown? |
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Definition
| it starts to use ketone bodies as an energy source |
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Term
| What happens when there is a high concentration ketone bosdies in the blood? |
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Definition
- mobilization of amino acids from muscle is prevented
- the brain begins to use ketone bodies as an energy source
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Term
| What are two examples of failure in glucose homeostasis? |
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Definition
- lactational ketosis
- pregnancy toxemia (ketosis)
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Term
| What is a situation when lactational ketosis may happen? Why does this happen? |
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Definition
| during lactation in high milk producing dairy cows because high milk production requires glucose for the lactose in milk |
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Term
| What is a situation when pregnancy toxemia may occur? Why does this happen? |
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Definition
- it may happen during late gestation in twin carrying sheep
- because there is a high glucose requirement for late gestational fetal growth
- and because the twins have to compete for food (glucose)
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Term
| How can pregnancy toxemia be helped? |
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Definition
- the sheep can be given propylene glycol
- grain may also help
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Term
| What are the pancreatic hormones that are most important in regulating feul metabolism? |
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Definition
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Term
| What types of cells produce insulin? |
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Definition
| beta cells in Islets of Langerhans |
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Term
| What is the function of glucose? |
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Definition
| lowers blood glucose, amino acid, and fatty acid levels and promotes their storage |
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Term
| In general how does insulin affect glucose? |
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Definition
| it facilitates glucose transport into most cells |
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Term
| Insulin stimulates ________ in the muscle and liver. |
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Definition
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Term
| Insulin inhibits __________ and __________ in the liver. |
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Definition
| glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| How many glucose transporters are there? What are they? |
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Definition
| 4; GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, and GLUT4 |
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Term
| Where is GLUT1 mostly located? |
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Definition
| it is widely distributed in fetal tissues and in adults it is mostly part of the endothelial cells of barrier tissues such as the blood brain barrier |
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Term
| What is the main responsibility of GLUT1? |
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Definition
| it is responsible for the low level of basal glucose uptake required to sustain respiration in all cells |
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Term
| Levels of GLUT1 are increased by _________ and decreased by __________. |
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Definition
| low glucose levels, high glucose levels |
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Term
| Is GLUT1 under hormonal control? Explain. |
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Definition
| no, or else a baby's blood glucose level would fluctuate |
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Term
| Where is GLUT2 mostly located? |
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Definition
| renal tubular cells, small intestinal epithelial cells that transport glucose, liver cells, and pancreatic beta cells |
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Term
| GLUT2 is a (high/low) capacity and a low affinity _________. |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is GLUT3 mostly located? What is its function there? |
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Definition
| in neurons where it is believed to be the main glucose isoform, and in the placenta |
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Term
| GLUT3 is a (low/high) affinity isoform. |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is glucose mainly located? |
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Definition
| adispose tissue and striated muscle |
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Term
| GLUT4 can temporarily _____________. |
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Definition
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Term
| Which glucose transporter is the insulin-regulated glucose transporter? Explain. |
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Definition
| GLUT4; it is responsible for insulin regulated glucose |
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Term
| How many glucose transporters are under hormonal control? Which one(s)? |
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Definition
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Term
| How does insulin affect fat? |
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Definition
- it increases the transport of glucose into adispose tissue cells to be a precursor for fatty acids and glycerol
- activation of enzymes that catalyze the production of fatty acids from glucose derivitives
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Term
| With regards to fats, insulin promotes the uptake of __________ from the blood. |
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Definition
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Term
| With ragards to fats, insulin inhibits ________. |
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Definition
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Term
| How does insulin affect proteins? |
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Definition
- it promotes active transport of amino acids from the blood into muscle
- it enhances the rate of amino acid incorporation into proteins
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Term
| Where is glucagon produced? |
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Definition
| the islet alpha cells of the pancreas |
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Term
| Glucagon opposes the affects of ________. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Insulin and glucagon work as a team to maintain the _________ and __________ levels. |
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Definition
| blood glucose, fatty acid |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is type I diabetes and what happens during it? |
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Definition
| autoimmune disease; T lymphocytes destroy beta cells |
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Term
| How does type I diabetes affect insulin levels? |
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Definition
| there is a lack of insulin secretion |
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Term
| Type I diabetes prevails in who? |
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Definition
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Term
| What can help type I diabetes? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is type II diabetes? |
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Definition
| normal or even higher insulin production |
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Term
| How does type II diabetes affect insulin? |
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Definition
| there is increased insensitivity to insulin |
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Term
| Are people born with type II diabetes or is it acquired? |
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Definition
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Term
| Type II diabetes prevails in who? |
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Definition
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Term
| The frmal name for diabetes is ___________. |
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Definition
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